【正文】 called a stop or a plosive. they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g] 二、知識點 resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. 2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing. 組成 ⑴Articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學longest established, mostly developed ⑵Auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學 ⑶Acoustic phonetics 聲學語音學 /Organs of Speech Pharyngeal cavity– 咽腔 Oral ...– 口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal …– 鼻腔 tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j]。 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of munication than the written. Langue and parole 語言和言語The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech munity, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. Competence and performance 語言能力和語言運用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines petence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic munication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.Chapter Two Phonology一、定義 transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. The sounds in the production of which no articulators e very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants. The basic unit in phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features. Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language. pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. distribution P35 Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in plementary distribution. medium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human munication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 在人類交際中有著一定意義、對語言學研究來說舉足輕重。 the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口頭語與書面語Speech and writing are the two major media of munication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing。除非對語言的各種狀態(tài)都進行成功的研究，否則很難從歷時性角度對語言進行描述。 traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language. 傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定性的，研究‘高級’書面語。 三、問答題 are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? Phoneticsit’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonologythe study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. MorphologyIt’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Syntaxit39。 order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts. is a plicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it39。 ： ⑴ Saussure Saussure:Langue和parole的區(qū)別 ⑵ linguist in1950針對Saussure’s langueamp。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多產(chǎn)性 Duality雙重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化傳遞 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is cultural