【正文】 by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position. 名詞詞組必須有格，賓語的格是由動詞或介詞決定，而主語的格由助動詞決定。 rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response. It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and decontextualized. It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the nonlinguistic world of experience. It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. (形)異義Homonymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. It refers to two words are identical in sound. . rain/reign. It refers to two words are identical in form .. tear v./tear n. It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. Analysis分析詞匯抽象意義 It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning ponents, called semantic features. Analysis 由British Linguist It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important mon category shared by propositions, questions, mands ect. 通過對論元argument和謂語predicate的分析，達到對句子意義進行分析的許多模式中的一種。 Polysemy。Antonymy。這解釋了為什么任何別的詞組類不能插到動詞和它的直接賓語之間。 a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. hierarchical nature of sentence structure句子結(jié)構(gòu)層次特點 sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase NP or verb phrase VP, grouped together. points at which the tree braches at various levels are called Branching nodes分叉點 addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels. Major …主要詞類open ,can add new words Lexical category 名、動、形、副詞N,V,Adj,Adv Syntactic Minor… 次要詞類close, words are fixed Categories 限定、助動、介、代、連、嘆Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int Phrasal category Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word(called a lexical category) or a phrase(called phrasal category)that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Noun Phrase NP Phrasal Verb Phrase VP Categories Preposition Phrase PP Adjective Phrase AP grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each moun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb, in many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to ’who’ does ’what ’to ’whom’. usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and direct object of. rules must be small in number so as not to create extra burdens on the human memory. also these rules must be powerful enough to yield all the possible sentences, and rule out the impossible ones組合規(guī)則一定不能太多，以免給人的記憶帶來過多的負擔，用這些規(guī)則必須能組合出所有可能的句子，而排除不可能的句子。 聲學(xué)語音學(xué)研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，研究語音從說話者到聽話者之間的傳播方式。Rising tone。 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of munication than the written. Langue and parole 語言和言語The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech munity, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. Competence and performance 語言能力和語言運用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines petence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic munication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.Chapter Two Phonology一、定義 transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. transcription The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds. The sounds in the production of which no articulators e very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. The sounds in the production of w