【正文】 orphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be bined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‘be‘ and ‘en(m)‘ Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. using the morphological rules, we must guard against Overgeneralization. 二、知識點 Inflectional morphology Derivational morphology Free morphemes Morphemes Root Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes Affixes Prefix Derivational affixes words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix features: ⑴orthographically, a pound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. ⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a pound is determined by the last element. ⑶semantically, the meaning of a pound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its ponent Chapter Four Syntax一、定義 A structurally independent unit that usually prises a number of words to form a plete statement, question or mand. petence The system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. The part of a sentence which prises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. Clause A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. Clause (E C) In a plete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C . Clause In a plexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause. structure The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. category A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement. grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language. 規(guī)則Move α A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. movement Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position. rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. theory A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X”→（Spec）X(Compl). 一種泛指的、高度抽象的圖示，它把所有的詞組結構規(guī)則概括為一種程式 X”→（Spec）X(Compl) a: X” b: X” Spec X’ Spec X’ X’ X pl X plement NP ’the student who likes linguistics’ consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the plement. NP(…)有冠詞、名詞和子句組成，冠詞是指示語，名詞是核心詞，子句是補足語。有限的聲音是語音媒介。s a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. SemanticsIt’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmaticsthe study of meaning in context of words. Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguisticsthe study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguisticsthe application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. do we say language is arbitrary? Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the ‘a(chǎn)rbitrariness’ of language is ‘a(chǎn) rose by any other name would smell as sweet’. 3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language ，其研究以確實可靠的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎。 Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of munication. 語言識別特征是指人類語言區(qū)別與其他任何動物的交際體系的限定性特征。 order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts. is a plicated entity with multiple layers and facts,