【正文】 n to person, from situation to situation. 1/ What is linguistics?什么是語言學(xué)？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope of linguistics語言學(xué)的研究范疇The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通語言學(xué))The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic munication, is called phonetics.（語音學(xué)）The study of how sounds are put together and used in munication is called phonology. （音系學(xué)）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形態(tài)學(xué)）The study of how morphemes and words are bined to form sentences is called syntax（句法學(xué)）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （語義學(xué)）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （語用學(xué)）The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. （社會語言學(xué)）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycholinguistics. （心理語言學(xué)） The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （應(yīng)用語言學(xué)） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人類語言學(xué)） neurological linguistics, （神經(jīng)語言學(xué)） mathematical linguistics, （數(shù)字語言學(xué)）and putational linguistics. （計算機(jī)語言學(xué)） 3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics語言學(xué)研究中的幾對基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 規(guī)定與描寫If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. Synchronic and diachronic 共時和歷時The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study。Fallrise tone。 an generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence. 循環(huán)性體現(xiàn)了語言中的句子能有更多的成分，使說話者能在同一句子中重復(fù)一些句法成分。 Hyponymy。 Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves增and減set on the Adjacency condition. with Englishtype languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the增 value, while for Frenchtype language, the parameter is set to減value. 三、問答題 the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences. ⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind ⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.Chapter 5 Semantics 一、定義 naming theory The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to。 are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and By manner of articulation do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why? 語音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的研究中心有何不同?語音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家哪一個更關(guān)心清晰音的區(qū)別?為什么? Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning. ’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phonemea collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophonesactual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?為什么區(qū)分最小對立組在一種語言中非常重要? Minimal pair—two sound binations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個語音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個語音組合. Minimal set—a group of sound binations with the above feature. 一組具有上述特征的語音組合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通過分析一種語言的最小對立對或最小對立組,音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位. with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the oneletter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序規(guī)則Sequential rules Rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language. 同化規(guī)則Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略規(guī)則Deletion rule It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Chapter Three Morphology一、定義 The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. morphemes Bound morphemes are these m