【正文】 pt 思想/指稱 X pl[D]Transformational rules 轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則224。 (Specifier) X (plement)Formula:X”224。 (deg.)P NP…②X bar theoryHead224。 ()V (NP) (POP) (S)… “( )”：內(nèi)部的成分可以省略AP224。 () (Adj.) N (PP) (S)… “224。 Yield all the possible sentencesRule out the impossible ones① phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)（短語結(jié)構規(guī)則）S224。224。 the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words（添加詞綴）⑩ Abbreviation224。 category change, functional shift⑧ Acronyms224。 a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form⑥ Back formation224。 a joining of two separate words to produce a single form （組成復合詞）④ Blending224。the invention of totally new terms （創(chuàng)造全新的詞）② Borrowing224。 adv.。 a.。Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 詞根/詞干+派生+曲折[D] Morphological Rules 形態(tài)學規(guī)則（詞的構成方式224。 past tense過去式, past participle過去分詞]Adj + er, est [parative比較級。 plural復數(shù)]Verb + s, ing, ed, en [3rd person present singular第三人稱單數(shù)。 Inflectional morphemes 曲折詞素224。 Derivational morphemes派生詞素224。 Lexical morphemes [] amp。 sentence stressThe stress of the English pounds always on the first element② Tone聲調(diào)Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones. 漢語就是一種典型的聲調(diào)語言，有四個音調(diào)Level, rise, fallrise, fall 陰平 陽平 上聲 去聲③ Intonation 語調(diào)When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones 四種語調(diào)The falling tone, the rising tone, the fallrising tone, and the risefall tone 降調(diào) 聲調(diào) 將聲調(diào) 升降調(diào)Chapter 3 Morphology 形態(tài)學[A] The definition of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（指對詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構以及構詞規(guī)則的研究）Morpheme:詞素 the most basic element of meaning.（意義的最基本要素） (A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function最小的意義單位或者語法功能)[B] Free morphemes amp。 /p/ vs. /b/ （要會判斷?。〤omplementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in plementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.[I] Some rules in phonology① sequential rules 序列規(guī)則 Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset: 如果三個輔音都出現(xiàn)在詞首，必須遵循以下三條規(guī)則：No1:___/s/ 第一個音位一定是/s/___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二個音位一定是/p/, /t/, /k/___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三個音位一定是/r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ] are not to be followed by another sibilants.② assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則Coarticulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called coarticulation.Assimilation amp。 /p/ vs. /b/ rope amp。 it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit. （音位是一個音位學的單位，而且是一個有區(qū)別意義的單位，是一個抽象的單位）Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的語音環(huán)境下代表某個音位的音素被稱為該音位的音位變體）[H] Phonemic contrast, plementary distribution, minimal pair（音位對立、互補分布、最小對立體）Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.. pin amp。 how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages。 short vowelsLarynx 224。② The openness of the mouth: close, semiclose, semiopen, open。(velar)②labiodentals唇齒音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v]③dental齒音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ]④alveolar齒齦音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j]⑥velars軟腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η]⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h][E] Classification of English vowels （英語元音的分類） retroflex⑤Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semivowels)Liquid + glides + [h]224。a lateral sound。[5bQtn]224。[spit]224。[pit]224。[help]224。[bild]224。[li:f]224。)a) System: bined together according to rules （根據(jù)規(guī)則組合在一起）b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for（語言符號和符號所代表的事物之間沒有內(nèi)在的必然的聯(lián)系）c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有語言的首要媒介都是聲音）d) Human: language is humanspecific （語言是人類所獨有的）[B]Design features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that