【正文】 words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the ‘a(chǎn)rbitrariness’ of language is ‘a(chǎn) rose by any other name would smell as sweet’. 3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language ，其研究以確實可靠的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。parole提出Competence和performance ⑶曾經(jīng)對語言概念下過定義的語言學(xué)家 Sapirlanguage is a purely human and noninstinctive method of munication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Halllanguage is the institution whereby humans municate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oralauditory arbitrary symbols. Chomskyfrom now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ⑷ Linguist Charles Hockett美國語言學(xué)家Charles Hockett 提出了語言的識別特征design features word ’language’ preceded by the zeroarticle ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language. Language一詞前不加冠詞說明語言學(xué)家不只研究一種特定的語言。 Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of munication. 語言識別特征是指人類語言區(qū)別與其他任何動物的交際體系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多產(chǎn)性 Duality雙重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化傳遞 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic munication. 語言運用是所掌握的規(guī)則在語言交際中的體現(xiàn)。 order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts. is a plicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so it39。 traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language. 傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定性的，研究‘高級’書面語。 the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口頭語與書面語Speech and writing are the two major media of munication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing。 When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or plete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g] 二、知識點 resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. 2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing. 組成 ⑴Articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學(xué)longest established, mostly developed ⑵Auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學(xué) ⑶Acoustic phonetics 聲學(xué)語音學(xué) /Organs of Speech Pharyngeal cavity– 咽腔 Oral ...– 口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal …– 鼻腔 tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j]。 Risefall tone三、問答題 are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound? Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. Auditory–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. Acoustic–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 發(fā)音語音學(xué)描述了我們的發(fā)音器官如何發(fā)出語音，以及這些語音為何有所不同。二、知識點 ,本義是arrangement. a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence. major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. ：the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and prehend. :A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood. 一個限定動詞被非正式稱為句中主要動詞，表達了人稱、數(shù)、時態(tài)、語氣限定的存在、行動或事件。 Syntactic NPmovement=t’s involving the movement of a noun phrase. Movement 名詞短語的移位 WHmovement=It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. 陳述變疑問句 AUX…=the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence initial position. 助動詞移位到句首的移位 General Principles of Universal Grammar: Case Condition和Adjacency Condition 格條件a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned