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sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個語音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個語音組合. Minimal set—a group of sound binations with the above feature. 一組具有上述特征的語音組合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通過分析一種語言的最小對立對或最小對立組,音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位. with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the oneletter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序規(guī)則Sequential rules Rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language. 同化規(guī)則Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略規(guī)則Deletion rule It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.話語的言外之義是說話人通過故意違反某一準(zhǔn)則而獲得這種聽者能懂的暗含之意。 Be brief/be orderly. ,美國哲學(xué)語言學(xué)家John Searle對言外行為分成了5類 闡述性Representativesto mit the speaker to something’s being the Case ,to the truth of what has been said. 例詞:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 指令性Directivesare attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. 例詞:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有實例 承諾性Commissiveswhen speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例詞:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型 表達(dá)類Expressivesthe speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. 例詞:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 宣告類Declarationsthe successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 和Pragmatics的區(qū)分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of munication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. knowledge is of two types: The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic munication is taking place. meaning與Utterance meaning的區(qū)別 Sentence meaningabstract, decontextualized. Utterance meaningconcrete, contextualized it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of munication, or simply in a context. 區(qū)分句子和話句,類似區(qū)分語義和語用學(xué),關(guān)鍵在于是否考慮語境。一個是心靈主義,另一個是經(jīng)驗主義。 超切分特征區(qū)分意義。arelinguistics?study?asthelanguage,alloccurlanguages.ofofoccurandwhichMorphologyIt‘sathewordsbyformed.athatstructureasmeaningPragmaticstheinlanguageLanguagetheisbetweenpeopleobjectssoundsfacthavetheathelanguage,tacitandandrelationshipthetypicaltheisanysmell3.linguisticsgrammar?isareand其研究以確實可靠的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。grammariswrittenlinguisticsdiachronic?linguisticsfocusinglanguage.statesarewilltoaview.priorityspeechSpeechfollowingprecedesforwritings?modern現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)主要是共時性的,重點研究現(xiàn)代語言。pointlanguagebestudied,athethemainlysynchronicon‘prescriptive.spokenonitsModernfrommakessweet‘.nameroseoftoupanyatofonlynatureillustrationobjectwordsdifferentwhichandsoundsintrinsicthatarbitraryarbitrary?we非考試要求內(nèi)容ofofabstraction.studysimplyatheofSyntaxit39。wordsthestructurewhichbranchfall.patternsasoundssystems—thePhonologythethesoundsconcernedmediumstudyPhoneticsit‘sdoesbranches ⑷but when the target language functions as a second language, an instrumental motivation is more effective. many morphemes are there in the English language? state what they are and illustrate how they work? ⑴there are two: free and bound morphemes. ⑵free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. ⑶bound morphemes are those that cant be used independently but have to bined with other morphemes. ⑷either free or bound, to form a word, it includes 2types: A root is often seen as part of a word,it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning, it must be bined with another root or an affix to form a word. ⑸Affixes are morphemes that are added to an already existing morpheme to form a new word while changing its meaning and grammatical relations. it consists of both inflectional and derivational affixes, 音素、音位、音位變體的定義及關(guān)系Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related. ⑴A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of munication is a phone, such as [ u:],[ l ]。 三、問答題 what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized? In what have e to be known as Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain. In your opinion does language relate thought and culture? Language doesn’t determine the way the speaker perceives the world, but largely functions as a means by which information can be stored and received, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts other members of the cultures. the processes of language perception, prehension and production. It’s been proposed that the brain activity involved in hearing, understanding and then saying a word would follow a definite pattern, when we listen, the word is heard and prehended via Wernicke’s area, this signal is then transferred to Broca’s area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor area controlling the vo