【正文】 lude number, gender, case and accountability。 and of the verb, ., tense, aspect, ice, etc.Number (數(shù)) is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.Gender(性) displays such contrasts as masculine, feminine, neuter or animate and inanimate, etc. for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the realworld entities，we natural gender (the opposite is grammatical gender).Case(格) identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms accusative, nominative, dative, English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic categoryusually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject.syntactic categories may lead to three resultsConstitutes that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.a. The student liked the linguistics lecture.b. The linguistics lecture liked The student.c. Liked the student the linguistics lecture. Grammatical relations(語法關(guān)系) The structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to “who” does “what” do whom”. We usually refer to the grammatical relations as “subject of” and “direct object of”.The subject precedes the verb and the direct object follows the verb, with the former called the structural subject and the latter the structural object. The structural subject is not necessarily the logical subject (the doer of an action) and the structural object is not necessarily the logical object (the recipient of the action).The man killed the dog.The dog was killed by the man.I left the wallet in the park.It was in the park that I left the wallet. Xbar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for plement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, . NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world. The XP rule: XP (specifier) X (plement) give him some books。 put them on the deskThe revised XP rule: XP (specifier) X (plement*)a very beautiful river。 listen attentively。 sit with easeThe expanded XP rule:XP (spec) (mod) X (pl*) (mod)Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表達方式).NPmovement and WHmovement NPmovement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice. The workers have finished the job.The job has been finished by the workers.It is said that 20 people died in the accident.20 people are said to have died in the accident.WHmovement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.He bought a pair of shoes yesterday in the shop.What did he buy yesterday in the shop?When did he buy a pair of shoes in the shop?Where did he buy a pair of shoes yesterday? Other types of movement AUXmovement The movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentenceInitial position, like “be, have, do, will, can, should, etc”Is he your linguistics teacher?Can you understand me?Dstructure and SstructureTwo levels of syntactic representation, one that exists before movement takes place, the other that occurs after movement takes place. The former is called Dstructure (the deep structure) while the latter SStructure (the surface structure). Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (詞匯) （generate）Dstructure (deep structure)――Movement Rules（ transform）―――Sstructure (Surface structure)The syntactic ponent of the grammar: Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (詞匯) ↓generate Dstructure ↓ Movement Rules ↓translateSstructure Moveαa general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα (or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveα is too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human speciesspecific gift which exits in the mind or brain of a normal human being and which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguisticknowledge and a human speciesspecific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principlesandparameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time