【正文】 ationship between the embedded clause and its matrix clause is one of a part to the whole.II. most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as “that”,” until ”.III. an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically wellformed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes. The structure of sentencesLanguage is a highly structured system of munication. Sentences are not formed by randomly bining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly and hierarchicallystructured(線形結(jié)構(gòu)和層次結(jié)構(gòu)). The linear word order of a sentenceWhen a sentence is uttered or written down,the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Meanwhile, they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear(線性).The students like the linguistics teacher.The hierarchical structure of a sentencethe sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents (成分) and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. A: The students/like the/linguistics teacher.B: The/students like/the/linguistics teacher.C: The students like the/linguistics/teacher.D: The students//like/the linguistics teacher.Tree diagrams of sentence structureThe hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constitute structure, so called because a diagram looks like an inverted tree.IC analysis is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are. What remain of the first cut are called“immediate constituents(直接成分)”and what are left at the final cut are called “ultimate constituents”.，“John left yesterday” can be thus segmented：“John| left | | yesterday”. We get two immediate constituents for the first cut (|) and they are “John” and “l(fā)eft yesterday”. Further split（||） this sentence generates three “ultimate constituents”: “John”,“l(fā)eft ”and “yesterday”.In additional to the use of structural tree diagrams,Linguists may show the hierarchical structure of Sentences by using brackets and subscripts labels.[ [ The students][ [ like][ the linguistics teacher]]] Syntactic categories: (句法類型) The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, .，noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb Phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units：the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and accountability。 put them on the deskThe revised XP rule: XP (specifier) X (plement*)a very beautiful river。 sit with easeThe expanded XP rule:XP (spec) (mod) X (pl*) (mod)Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表達(dá)方式).NPmovement and WHmovement NPmovement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice. The workers have finished the job.The job has been finished by the workers.It is said that 20 people died in the accident.20 people are said to have died in the accident.WHmovement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.He bought a pair of shoes yesterday in the shop.What did he buy yesterday in the shop?When did he buy a pair of shoes in the shop?Where did he buy a pair of shoes yesterday? Other types of movement AUXmovement The movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentenceInitial position, like “be, have, do, will, can, should, etc”Is he your linguistics teacher?Can you understand me?Dstructure and SstructureTwo levels of syntactic representation, one that exists before movement takes place, the other that occurs after movement takes place. The former is called Dstructure (the deep structure) while the latter SStructure (the surface structure). Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (詞匯) （generate）Dstructure (deep structure)――Movement Rules（ transform）―――Sstructure (Surface structure)The syntactic ponent of the grammar: Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (詞匯) ↓generate Dstructure ↓ Movement Rules ↓translateSstructure Moveαa general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα (or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveα is too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human speciesspecific gift which exits in the mind or brain of a normal human being and which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguisticknowledge and a human speciesspecific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principlesandparameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time