【文章內(nèi)容簡介】 ages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. Acoustic–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and By manner of articulation do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why? 語音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的研究中心有何不同?語音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家哪一個(gè)更關(guān)心清晰音的區(qū)別?為什么? Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning. ’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phonemea collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophonesactual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?為什么區(qū)分最小對(duì)立組在一種語言中非常重要? Minimal pair—two sound binations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個(gè)語音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個(gè)語音組合. Minimal set—a group of sound binations with the above feature. 一組具有上述特征的語音組合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通過分析一種語言的最小對(duì)立對(duì)或最小對(duì)立組,音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位. with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the oneletter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序規(guī)則Sequential rules Rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language. 同化規(guī)則Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略規(guī)則Deletion rule It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.話語的言外之義是說話人通過故意違反某一準(zhǔn)則而獲得這種聽者能懂的暗含之意。 ⑴言語行為理論Speech act theory 由英國哲學(xué)家John Austin在20世紀(jì)50年代末提出 ⑵會(huì)話原則CP 邏輯哲學(xué)家Paul Grice提出。 2. 合作原則的準(zhǔn)則4Maxim of Cooperative Principle 數(shù)量 the maxim of Quantity你說的話應(yīng)包含所需內(nèi)容且不可超過內(nèi)容要求 Make your contribution as informative as required。 Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 質(zhì)量the maxim of Quality 不要說你認(rèn)為是假的話或你缺乏足夠證據(jù)的話 Do not say what you believe to false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 關(guān)系 the maxim of relation使你的話與話題相關(guān)be relevant 方式 the maxim of manner避免模糊、歧義，應(yīng)簡明有序 Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity。 Be brief/be orderly. ，美國哲學(xué)語言學(xué)家John Searle對(duì)言外行為分成了5類 闡述性Representativesto mit the speaker to something’s being the Case ,to the truth of what has been said. 例詞:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 指令性Directivesare attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. 例詞:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有實(shí)例 承諾性Commissiveswhen speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例詞:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型 表達(dá)類Expressivesthe speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. 例詞:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 宣告類Declarationsthe successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 和Pragmatics的區(qū)分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of munication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. knowledge is of two types: The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic munication is taking place. meaning與Utterance meaning的區(qū)別 Sentence meaningabstract, decontextualized. Utterance meaningconcrete, contextualized it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of munication, or simply in a context. 區(qū)分句子和話句，類似區(qū)分語義和語用學(xué)，關(guān)鍵在于是否考慮語境。 most utterances take the form of sentences ,. most utterances are plete sentences In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can’t even be restored to plete sentences the nature of language change All living languages change with change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,ongoing,and change is a rulegoverned behavior,involving all ponents of the grammar. the major causes of language change Sound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing與語法變化有關(guān) ⑴語音同化Sound assimilation Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes. ⑵規(guī)則簡化Rule simplification It’s a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english. ⑶內(nèi)部借用Internal Borrowing It’s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal represents a continual readjustment of a language’s grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another. ⑷規(guī)則細(xì)化 Elaboration It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase municative clarity or expressiveness. ⑸