【正文】 , applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人類語言學(xué)） neurological linguistics, （神經(jīng)語言學(xué)） mathematical linguistics, （數(shù)字語言學(xué)）and putational linguistics. （計算機語言學(xué)） 3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics語言學(xué)研究中的幾對基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 規(guī)定與描寫If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not. Synchronic and diachronic 共時和歷時The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study。 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form。有限的聲音是語音媒介。the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d]. consonants: [m] / [n] / [η] 9. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. rules例子 If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the bination should obey the following three rules: ⑴the first phoneme must be /s/ ⑵the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ ⑶the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone。Fallrise tone。 聽覺語音學(xué)研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，得出了重要結(jié)論，即語音同一只是理論上的理想。 are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and By manner of articulation do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why? 語音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的研究中心有何不同?語音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家哪一個更關(guān)心清晰音的區(qū)別?為什么? Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning. ’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phonemea collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophonesactual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?為什么區(qū)分最小對立組在一種語言中非常重要? Minimal pair—two sound binations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個語音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個語音組合. Minimal set—a group of sound binations with the above feature. 一組具有上述特征的語音組合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通過分析一種語言的最小對立對或最小對立組,音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位. with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the oneletter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序規(guī)則Sequential rules Rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language. 同化規(guī)則Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略規(guī)則Deletion rule It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Chapter Three Morphology一、定義 The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be bined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‘be‘ and ‘en(m)‘ Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. using the morphological rules, we must guard against Overgeneralization. 二、知識點 Inflectional morphology Derivational morphology Free morphemes Morphemes Root Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes Affixes Prefix Derivational affixes words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix features: ⑴orthographically, a pound can be written as one word, two separate words with or