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【正文】 chose and implemented acplish the desired result? If not, the manager may consider returning to a previous step or may even consider starting the whole decision process over. (difficult) 123. In a short essay, discuss the assumptions of rationality and the validity of those assumptions. Answer A decision maker who was perfectly rational would be fully objective and logical. He or she would carefully define a problem and would have a clear and specific goal. Moreover, making decisions using rationality would consistently lead toward selecting the alternative that maximizes the likelihood of achieving that goal. The assumptions of rationality apply to any decision. Rational managerial decision making assumes that decisions are made in the best economic interests of the anization. That is, the decision maker is assumed to be maximizing the anization’s interests, not his or her own interests. Managerial decision making can follow rational assumptions if the following conditions are met: The manager is faced with a simple problem in which the goals are clear and the alternatives limited, in which the time pressures are minimal and the cost of seeking out and evaluating alternatives is low, for which the anizational culture supports innovation and risk taking, and in which outes are relatively concrete and measurable. However, most decisions that managers face in the real world don’t meet all those tests. (moderate) 126. In a short essay, discuss the difference between wellstructured and poorly structured problems. Include specific examples of each type of problem to support your answer. Next discuss the type of decisions that would be used to address each of these problems. Answer a. Wellstructured problems the goal of the decision marker is clear, the problem is familiar, and information about the problem is easily defined and plete. Examples of these types of problems might include a customer’s wanting to return a purchase to a retail store, a supplier’s being late with an important delivery, a news team’s responding to an unexpected and fastbreaking event, or a college’s handling of a student wanting to drop a class. Such situations are called wellstructured problems since they are straightforward, familiar, and easily defined problems. In handling these problem situations, the manager uses a programmed decision. Decisions are programmed to the extent that they are repetitive and routine and to the extent that a definite approach has been worked out for handling them. Because the problem is well structured, the manager doesn’t have to go to the trouble and expense of going through an involved decision progress. Programmed decision making is relatively simple and tends to rely heavily on previous solutions. b. Poorlystructured problems – these problems are new or unusual and for which information is ambiguous or inplete. For example, the selection of an architect to design a new corporate manufacturing facility in Bangkok is an example of a poorlystructured problem. When problems are poorlystructured, managers must rely on nonproprammed decision making in order to develop unique solutions. Nonprogrammed decisions are unique and nonrecurring. When a manager confronts a poorlystructured problem, or one that is unique, there is no cutanddried solution. It requires a custommade response through nonprogrammed decision making. (difficult) 130. In a short essay, list and discuss the four decisionmaking styles as described in the text. Answer a. Directive style – people using the directive style have low tolerance for ambiguity and are rational in their way of thinking. They’re efficient and logical. Directive types make fast decisions and focus on the short run. Their efficiency and speed in making decisions often result in their making decisions with minimal information and assessing few alternatives. b. Analytic style – decisionmakers with an analytic style have much greater tolerance for ambiguity than do directive types. They want more information before making a decision and consider more alternatives than a directive style decisionmaker does. Analytic decisionmakers are best characterized as careful decisionmakers with the ability to adapt or cope with unique situations. c. Conceptual style – individuals with a conceptual style tend to be very broad in their outlook and will look at many alternatives. They focus on the long run and are very good at finding creative solutions to problems. d. Behavioral style – these decision markers work well with others. They’re concerned about the achievements of subordinates and are receptive to suggestions from others. They often use meetings to municate, although they try to avoid conflict. Acceptance by others is important to this decisionmaking style. (moderate) Chapter 7 – Foundations of Planning Essay Questions 122. In a short essay, list and discuss the four reasons for planning. Answer a. Planning establishes coordinated effort. It gives direction to managers and nonmanagers alike. When employees know where the anization or work unit are going and what they must contribute to reach goals, they can coordinate their activities, cooperate with each other, and do what it takes to acplish those goals. Without planning, departments and individuals might be working at crosspurposes, preventing the anization from moving efficiently toward its goals. b. Planning reduces uncertainty by forcing managers to look ahead, anticipate change, consider the impact of change, and develop appropriate responses. It also clarifies the consequences of actions managers might take in response to change. Even though planning can’t eliminate change, managers plan in order to anticipate changes and develop the most effective re