【正文】 what is the cause of cancer? Recently, forensic evidence provided to a court of law has been found wanting. 其他學(xué)科，即便是硬科學(xué)，也有其爭議，如：宇宙的起源是什么；什么導(dǎo)致了癌癥？。 Policy rules are contingent upon a reality which unfolds with uncertainty. 政策規(guī) 則取決于現(xiàn)實，而現(xiàn)實是不確定地呈現(xiàn)的。 the amount of disagreement amongst research economists, as pared to political economy mentators and scribblers, is much less than it is often supposed. 從事研究的經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家們之間意見分歧的量，當(dāng)與政治經(jīng)濟(jì)評論家和三流作家們相比時，要比人們經(jīng)常想象的少得多。 Others, especially those outside of the discipline of economics, wrongly believe that there is an oversupply of peting theories and paradigms in economics. 其他人，尤其是那些不懂經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)理論的人，錯誤地認(rèn)為， 經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)中矛盾的理論和范式“供過于求”。 Unit 3 Text A In Praise of Theory 贊美理論 Nothing is quite so practical as a good theory. 任何事物都沒有一種好的理論那樣實用。 Second has been the more recent choice of placing heavy reliance upon direct provision of services and functions by the government as opposed to reliance solely upon the manipulation of subsidies for private action. 另一個選擇是在更近的一些時候做出的，就是極大地依靠直接由政府提供的服務(wù)和職能，而不是僅僅依靠對私人行為提供補助金。 One was that government would exist to promote such objectives as the mon defense, economic development, and the general welfare. 一個 選擇是：政府的存在 就是要促進(jìn)國防、經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和全民的福利這些目標(biāo)。有意思的是，這意味著大約有一半的聯(lián)邦政府雇員受雇于兩個部門 —— 國防部和郵政部。作戰(zhàn)部和海軍部成立于 I8 世紀(jì)，但一直到第二次世界大戰(zhàn)后，軍事部門才成為聯(lián)邦政府最大的管理部門。 Departments such as Agriculture, Labor, and Commerce are often called clientele departments because they deal largely with a relatively welldefined category of people who are generally assumed to have mon economic interest. 像農(nóng)業(yè)部、勞工部和 商務(wù)部這些政府部門經(jīng)常被稱為顧客群部門，因為他們主要是和 一類定義相對明確的人打交道，而 這些人一般來說都有著共同的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益。 A second source of administrative growth has been the desire to promote economic development and social wellbeing through governmental action recognizing the needs of various sectors of the economy. 行政國家發(fā)展的第二個根源就是通過承認(rèn)不同經(jīng)濟(jì)部門需要的政府行為，來促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和社會福利這樣一種愿望。 In a thoughtful and succinct analysis, James Q. Wilson has identified several primary roots of the development of the contemporary American administrative state. One was to provide a reliable postal service. 在一項富有創(chuàng)見而又簡潔明了的分析中，詹姆斯 ? Q ?威爾遜確認(rèn)了當(dāng)代美國行政國家發(fā)展的 幾個主要根源，其中之一就是要提供可靠的郵政服務(wù)。 For instance, it authorizes the federal government to establish post offices and post roads and to raise and direct and army and navy. 例如：憲法授權(quán)給聯(lián)邦政府，讓其建立郵局，建造郵路，建立并指揮一支陸軍和海軍。 It is monly believed that American founding fathers never anticipated that governments in the United States would bee engaged in a great deal of administrative action. 人們普遍認(rèn)為，美國的締造者們絕沒有預(yù)料到美 國的各級政府會參與到那么多的管理行為當(dāng)中。 Similarly, education, defense, and a host of other operations are undertaken by government. 同樣，教育、國防以及其他許多工作都是由政府來承擔(dān)的。 Sometimes—indeed, with increasing frequency in the twentieth century—governments seek to achieve their goals through direct public action. 實際上，政府有時候會通過直接的公共行為來達(dá)到其目標(biāo)，而且這種情況在 20 世紀(jì)越來輝常見。 It is often feasible for the government to promote its objectives through reliance on private action and the manipulation of subsides and incentives. 政府通過依靠私人行為、使用補助金和獎勵來促進(jìn)其目標(biāo)的做法經(jīng)常是可行的。 Such an approach, it is argued, would create a greater incentive and would also maximize the freedom of parents to choose among peting educational services. 這些經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家認(rèn)為這個辦法會 更大地刺激學(xué)校，使他們的經(jīng)營管理更加有力而富有成效，同時可以給象長們最大的自由度，使他們能 在各種彼此互相競爭的教育機(jī)構(gòu)中進(jìn)行選擇。 Today, some economists, such as Milton Friedman, argue that education should be supplied by private anizations through a scheme in which the parents of school children would receive tuition vouchers from the government. 今天，一些經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家（如米爾頓?弗里德曼）認(rèn)為，應(yīng)該通過一種計劃，由私人組 織來提供教育服務(wù)。 For instance, at one time mentally retarded persons were ―sold‖ to private individuals who would care for them at the least cost to the government, which was willing to pay for this service as part of its mitment to the mon interest. 比如：在過去，智 障人士被“賣”給私人，這些人會以政府最低的花費來照顧他們，而作為促進(jìn)全體公民利益之承諾 的一部分，政府也愿意為這種服務(wù)買單。 For example, private armies of mercenaries were once a mon means of waging war or promoting national defense. 例 如：使用雇傭兵曾經(jīng)是發(fā)動戰(zhàn)爭或保衛(wèi)國家的一種常見方式； Education was once a private or churchrelated endeavor. 教育曾經(jīng)是和私人或和教會有關(guān)的工 作； Taking care of individuals’ health and welfare needs was once left up to families and churches. 關(guān)心個人的健康、滿足他們的幸福需要曾經(jīng)由家庭和教會來承 擔(dān)。 Several alternatives to government sponsorship of such services do exist. 政府可以采取幾種方式去資助這些服務(wù)。 Thus, governments in the United States provide educational services, transportation services, munications services, and services intended to promote health and social and economic wellbeing in general. 因此，美國的各 級政府都提供教育、交通和通訊服務(wù)，以及目的在于促進(jìn)全體公民的健康及 社會、經(jīng)濟(jì)利益的服務(wù)。 The latter may seem too vague to convey anything of a specific nature, but generally it includes a mitment to economic development and to the provision of services by the government for the purpose of advancing the mon good. 最后一點可能 看起來太模糊，表達(dá)不出任何具體的實質(zhì)內(nèi)容，但一般來說，它包括了承諾發(fā)展經(jīng)濟(jì)，以及由政府提供服務(wù)以促進(jìn)全體公民的共同利益。 These are found in the Preamble to the Constitution, which reads: 我們可以在“憲法 導(dǎo)言”里讀到這些目標(biāo)，即： WE THE PEOPLE of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the mon defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America. “我們 —— 合眾國的公民，為了形成一個更加完善的聯(lián)邦，建立司法和公正，保證國內(nèi)和平， 做好共同的防御，促進(jìn)國民的福利，保證我們自己和我們的子孫后代永遠(yuǎn)享有自由，特為美利堅合 眾國制定此憲法。 The growth of administrative power is a worldwide phenomenon that affects the nature of governments in virtually all nations. 管理力量的發(fā)展壯大是一個世界性的現(xiàn)象， 它影響著幾乎所有國家政府的本質(zhì)。 that, as a whole, they are politically powerful。 The term administrative state is intended to convey several realities of contemporary government: that a great deal of the society’s resources are spent on the salaries and functions of pu