【正文】 government。 and that the nation has decided upon a course of attempting to solve its problems and achieve its aims through the use of administrative action. 我們用“行政國(guó)家”這個(gè)術(shù)語(yǔ)來表達(dá)當(dāng)代政府的幾個(gè)現(xiàn)實(shí)：大量的社會(huì)資源都花在了公共管理人員的薪酬和工作職能上；公共管理人員對(duì) 當(dāng)代政府的運(yùn)作至關(guān)重要；總的來說，公共管理人員在政治上是強(qiáng)大的；國(guó)家已經(jīng)決定走一條通過 運(yùn)用管理行為來解決國(guó)家問題、達(dá)到國(guó)家目的的道路。 The Political Roots of the American administrative State 美國(guó)行政國(guó)家的政治根源 The constitutional government of the United States came into existence in 1789 with some clearly stated formal goals. 美國(guó)的憲法政府產(chǎn)生于 1789 年，在成立之初就有著明確闡明的正式 目標(biāo)?！? In this passage it can be found some of the classic purposes of almost all contemporary nations: the desire to provide for the defense of the political munity, for law and order, and for the general welfare. 從這段話中，我們可以找到幾乎所有當(dāng)代國(guó)家的一些經(jīng)典目標(biāo)：為政治團(tuán)體、法律、秩 序和全體公民的福利提供保護(hù)的愿望。 The idea that the state should provide such services did not develop in Western Europe until the 1660s, but now it is perhaps the most prominent feature of the administrative state. 國(guó)家應(yīng)該提供 此類服務(wù)的思 想一直到 17 世紀(jì) 60 年代才在西歐產(chǎn)生，但現(xiàn)在，這種思想也許是行政國(guó)家最顯著的 特征。 The decisions to pursue these purposes in the first place are political. So is the choice of a means for achieving them. 政府決定追求這些目標(biāo)首先是出于政治的考慮，而選擇什么樣的手段去達(dá)到這些目標(biāo)亦是如 此。 Government could rely heavily upon private resources and incentives to serve their purpose. 政府可以倚重私有資源和資金鼓勵(lì)去達(dá)到其目的。 Private action has frequently been augmented by the provision of governmental financial assistance to those individuals whose actions promote general national goals. 對(duì)那些其行為促進(jìn)了國(guó)家總 體目標(biāo)的個(gè)人，政府常常會(huì)向其提供經(jīng)濟(jì)資助，從而進(jìn)一步加強(qiáng)這種私人行為。 Farm subsidies pay private farmers to use the nation’s agricultural resources in the national interest. 農(nóng)業(yè)補(bǔ)助給農(nóng)民提供資金，讓他們以國(guó)家的利益來使用國(guó) 家的農(nóng)業(yè)資源。 These could be used at any school the parents felt best suited their children’s educational needs. 這種計(jì)劃就是，學(xué)齡兒童的父母會(huì)從政府那里得到學(xué)費(fèi)憑證，然后他們可以在 任何一所他們認(rèn)為最符合其孩子教育需要的學(xué)校使用這些憑證。 Similarly, various incentives can be built into the government’s system of taxation to promote individual behavior deemed in the mon interest. 同樣，在政府的稅收制度中也可以建立起各種刺激機(jī)制，以促進(jìn)那些符合公共利益的個(gè)人行為。 But this is not always government’s preferred choice of means. 但這些做法 并 不總是政府最喜歡的工作方式。 For instance, in the housing example, governments seek to assure that everyone is adequately housed by building and running public housing projects. Instead of paying private individuals to take care of the mentally retarded, governments build and operate mental health facilities for this purpose. 例如：在住房這個(gè)問題上， 政府尋求的是通過建造和管理公共住房 項(xiàng)目來保證每個(gè)人都有足夠的住房；政府建造和經(jīng)營(yíng)精神健康機(jī)構(gòu)來照顧智障人士，而不是給私人提供資金來這到這個(gè)目的。 The essence of the administrative state and the need for large scale public administration lie in the policy of governments to undertake anizational action themselves to achieve their ultimate political goals. 行政國(guó)家的本質(zhì)以及我們對(duì)大規(guī)模公共管理的需要就在于政府為達(dá)到它們最終的政治目標(biāo)而采 取了這樣的政策 —— 由政府自己來實(shí)施組織行為。 However, it is also clear that the Constitution itself indicates the preference for public action in some areas. 然而，有一點(diǎn)也是顯而易見的，即：憲法本身也表明，在某些領(lǐng)域，公共行為是更好的選擇。 Even a brief review of the development of largescale public administration in the United States during the past two centuries indicates the extent to which such direct administrative action has bee increasingly monplace. 甚至對(duì)過去兩個(gè)世紀(jì)以來美國(guó)大型公共管理發(fā)展的簡(jiǎn)單回顧也表 明了這種直接的管理行為已經(jīng)變得越來越普遍的程度。 The . Post Office was not viewed as an end itself, but rather as a means of promoting economic development and national cohesion. 美國(guó)的郵政并沒有被看做目的本身，而是被看做一種促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和國(guó)家凝聚力的手段。 For example, the Department of Agriculture was created in 1862 and the Departments of Commerce and Labor came into existence in 1913. 比如： 1862 年成立了農(nóng)業(yè)部， 1913年成立了商務(wù)部和勞工部， More recently, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (now Health and Human Services) and the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, and Education have been created to provide governmental goals in these economic and social areas of American life. 再往后又成 立了健康、教育和福利部（即現(xiàn)在的健康和人力服務(wù)部）、住房和城市發(fā)展部、交通部、能源部和教育部，目的是要在上述美國(guó)人民的經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會(huì)生活領(lǐng)域內(nèi)規(guī)定政府的目標(biāo)。 Another source of administrative growth has been defense. The Department of War and Navy were created in the eighteenth century, but the military establishment did not emerge as the federal government’s largest administrative operation until after World War II. 行政國(guó)家發(fā)展的另一個(gè)根源就是國(guó)防。 Since that time, the Department of Defense has employed as many as third of all civilian federal workers. Interestingly, this means that about half of all federal employees are employed in two agencies—Defense and Post Office. 從此，國(guó)防部所雇傭的工作人員占去了聯(lián)邦政府公務(wù)員的三分之一。 In sum, the political roots of development of contemporary public administration in the United States lie primarily in two political choices made by the government and society. 總而言之，美國(guó)當(dāng)代公共管理發(fā)展的政治根源主要在于政府和社會(huì)做出的兩個(gè)政治選擇。 This was a choice first made back in the late 1780s and reinforced subsequently on many occasions. 這個(gè)選擇最早在 18 世紀(jì) 80 年代做出，后來又多次得到進(jìn)一步強(qiáng)化。 In addition to these factors, the Constitution expresses a desire to promote domestic tranquility, which brings us to what can be considered the legal roots of the contemporary administrative state. 除了這些因素以外， 憲法也表達(dá)了促進(jìn)國(guó)內(nèi)和平這一愿望，這可以被看做當(dāng)代行政國(guó)家發(fā)展的法律根源。 Theory in the social sciences, especially economic theory, is frequently attacked by practitioners because its function is so often misunderstood. 社會(huì)科學(xué)理論，尤其是經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)理論，由于它的功能往往被誤解，因而頻繁遭到實(shí)踐者的批評(píng)。 Economists suffer the butt of jokes such as, ―if you lay all of the economists in the world end to end you will never reach a conclusion.‖ 經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家們淪為笑柄，例如，“如果你把世界上所有的經(jīng) 濟(jì)學(xué)家們首尾相接地放在一起，你將永遠(yuǎn)都得不出結(jié)論”。 Indeed, that economists do not agree on policy prescriptions is a reflection of the plexity and uncertainty of the world in which we live and for which policy has to be designed. 事實(shí)上，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家們不同意政策規(guī)定，這 反映了我們生活于其中并為之設(shè)計(jì)政策的世界具有復(fù)雜性和不確定性。 Other disciplines, even the hard sciences, have their controversies: what is the origin of the universe