【正文】 which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, they typically make a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.2. Complementsplement: The words on the right side of the heads are plements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.subcategorization: the information about a word’s plement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.XP (Specifier) X (Complements*)“ * ” means the fact that plements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.“that” plementizer: Words which introduce the sentence plement are termed plementizer.“she will win” plement clause: The sentence introduced by the plementizer.“that she will win” plement phrase: the elements, including a plementizer and a plement clause.“Miss Hebert believes” matrix clause: the contrusction in which the plement phrase is embedded.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.XP (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a plement, amodifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the plement as well.Part Five : Sentences (The S Rule)1 The S rule : S NP VP (This analysis is based on the assumptionn that unlike other phrases, which contains a head, a plement and a pecifier, S does not have an internal structure.)2 Another view : Many linguists beliebve that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take abstract category inflection as their heads, which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement, Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its plement.1 Infl realized by a tense labelThe boy found the book.2 Infl position realized by an auxiliaryA boy will find the book.Part Six : Transformations1. Auxiliary movementtransformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.The yesno question structures are built in two steps :1 The usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between subject and the VP.2 In forming a yesno question requires a transformation known as inversion to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, C position.inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement.2. Do InsertionHow to form a yesno question that does not contain an overt Infl such as “ Birds fly.”Linguists circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do. So we can formulate an insertion rule:Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Do insertion : In the process of forming yesno question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.3. Deep structure and surface structuredeep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, ., transformation, to the deep structure. The XP rule Deep structure Transformation Surface structure.(Subcategorization restricts choice of plements.)4. Wh MovementWh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh word are called wh question.Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.【Practice】Draw a tree diagram of the sentence:She has finally found the man who she loves.5. Moveａand constraints on transformationsmove α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘a(chǎn)lpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints: 1 Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more didtant C position..: Deep structure: Mike should know that the train might be late.T: Should Mike know whether the train might be late? (√)F: Might Mike should know whether the train be late? ()2 No element may be removed from a coordinate structure..: Deep structure: The little girl will tell us a story and a joke.F: What will the little girl tell us a story or? ()Chapter 5: SemanticsPart One: What is semantics?semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.Part Two: Some Views Concerning The Study of Meaning1. The naming theoryPlatoThe naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.View: The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.Limitation: 1 This theory seems applicable to nouns onlyV, Adj., Adv. are definitely not labels of objects.2 Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real , dragon, ghost.3 Within the category of nouns, there are nouns that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notionsjoy, impulse.2. The conceptualist viewOdgen amp。 RichardsView: There is no direct link between a