【正文】 ry (命名論): Proposed by PlatoThe linguistic forms or symbols (. words) used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. They are just names or labels for things.Limitations: applicable to nouns but not to verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.。 Not applicable to nouns which denote things not existing in the world The conceptualist view（概念論）There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to。 they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Ogden and Richards’ semantic triangle or triangle of significance thought/reference symbol/form……………………..referentContextualism（語境論）: (19301960)Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context elements closely linked with language behavior.. Firth (British linguist): We shall know a word by the pany it keeps. Wittgenstein (German philosopher): the meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism（行為主義論）The meaning of a language form is: the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer (Bloomfield 1933) Jill Jack S…………..r………..s…………….RLexical Meaning: Sense (意義) and reference (語義）Sense: the inherent meaning of a linguistic form。 the collection of all the features of the linguistic form。 it is abstract and decontextualized。 the aspect of meaning dictionary pilers are interested in. . Dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form. (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979)Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world。 it deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the nonlinguistic world of experience.Major Sense RelationsSynonymy 同義關(guān)系 It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.Dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects . autumnfall, flatapartmentStylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style . start, begin, menceSynonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning . famousnotoriousCollocational synonyms . to accuse …of…/to charge …with…Semantically different synonyms . gaze glarePolysemy 一詞多義While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than meaning. This is what we call polysemy.Homonymy 同音異義It refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. . sun, son When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. . wind n., wind v.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are plete homonyms. e. g. break n., v.Hyponymy 下義關(guān)系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. animal (dog, duck, tiger,…) superordinate hyponyms cohyponymsAntonymy 反義關(guān)系It refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Gradable antonyms 等級反義關(guān)系 oldyoungComplementary antonyms 互補(bǔ)反義關(guān)系 alivedead, malefemaleRelational opposites 反向反義關(guān)系 husbandwife, fathersonSense relations between sentencesX is synonymous with Y. . X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life.X is inconsistent with Y. . X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.X entails Y. . X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe. X presupposes Y. . John’s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike.X is a contradiction. . My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.X is semantically anomalous. . The table has bad intentions.Meaning Analysis Componential analysis 成分分析: a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.It is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning ponents, called semantic features. (語義特征)– Man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALE– Woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, MALE– Boy: +HUMAN, ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALE Predication analysis (Sentence meaning)Some basic points: The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its ponents. There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning (grammaticality) and semantic meaning (selectional restrictions)The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(選擇限制), which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Predication analysis (述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析） Proposed by British linguist Predication: the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. It consists of argument(s) and predicate.Argument: the logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element or elements in a sentence.Predicate: something said about an argument or it states the logical relations linking the arguments in a sentence.Examples: TOM (SMOKE) Tom smokes. Tom is smoking. Tom has been smoking. Tom, smoke! Does Tom smoke? KID, APPLE (LIKE): Kids like apples. Twoplace, oneplace, and noplace predication ( It is hot. (BE HOT))Chapter 6 PragmaticsPragmatics vs. semantics。 Some basic notions: pragmatics, context, sentence meaning。 utterance meaning。 Important theories of pragmatics: Speech act theory, Principle of conversation/conversational implicature Definition of Pragmatics: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful munication.As the process of munication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics