【正文】 Important theories of pragmatics: Speech act theory, Principle of conversation/conversational implicature Definition of Pragmatics: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful munication.As the process of munication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can。 Some basic notions: pragmatics, context, sentence meaning。 the aspect of meaning dictionary pilers are interested in. . Dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form. (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979)Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world。 the collection of all the features of the linguistic form。 Not applicable to nouns which denote things not existing in the world The conceptualist view（概念論）There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to。s subcategorization properties. Birds fly.Surface structure: The final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations. Do birds fly? Birds do fly. Birds didn39。 it is an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic form.A sentence is similar to a phrase, with Infl. as its head, NP its specifier and VP its plement. So it has the same internal structure as other phrases and is consistent with the XP rule.Transformations: It refers to the syntactic movement. It can help explain such language phenomena as yesno question, whquestion and passive voice.Auxiliary movement: Inversion。 They can be deterniners, qualifiers, degree words, ... .Complement（補(bǔ)充成分）: the words on the right side of the heads.Modifier (修飾語): the words specifying optionally expressible properties of heads. AP proceeding the head ( a very careful girl), PP following he head ( open with care), and AdvP proceeding or following the head ( read carefully, carefully read). A moving story about a sentimental girlspecifier modifier head plementXP Rule: a single general phrasal structural rulethe XP rule →(specifier)X(plement)Coordination rule（并列規(guī)則）: Coordination: the phenomenon where the structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or.Subcategorization (次范疇化) The information about a word39。?]Rules in phonologyIn what way the phonemes are bined.Sequential rules (序列規(guī)則): the rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language. . spring, book, snake, ...Assimilation rule(同化規(guī)則): the rule assimilating one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. . incorrect, indiscreetDeletion rule(省略規(guī)則): the rule that tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. . signsignature Suprasegmental features 超音段特征Suprasegments are the units of language which are larger than the phonemesthe sound segments, such as syllables, words, phrases and sentences.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.Chapter 3 MorphologyMorphology, Wordformation processes, Closed class words and open class wordsDefinition 形態(tài)學(xué),詞法The branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. Morpheme, morph, allomorphMorpheme(語素/詞素): the smallest unit of meaning, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. . box+es, desire+ableIn view of wordformation, the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the position of words.Syntactically, it is the minimal form of grammatical analysis. . studies, studying, studied (study+, es, ing, ed)Morphemes are abstract units, realized by discrete units known as morphs.Morph (語素形式/形素): The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are morphs.The morph to a morpheme what a phone is to a phoneme.Most morphemes are realized by one morph like bird, cat, tree, sad, want, etc. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words. Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph in relation to their phonological context in a word. . The morpheme of plurality {s}: cats, bags, matches // The past tense of the morpheme {be} : was, were Allomorph(語素變體): alternate shapes or phonetic forms of the same morpheme . An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs. Morpheme {would}morph morph morph morph allomorph /wud/ /w?d/ /?d/ /d/Types of morphemes: free vs. bound, derivational vs. inflectionalFree morpheme(自由語素): a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree”, “dog”, …They can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with words. They are all roots.Bound morpheme(粘著語素): a morpheme that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “er” in “teacher”.They are mainly found in derived words. They consist of both roots and affixes. Derivational morphemes(派生語素): those morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach. . cputerize, multimedia In English, derivatives and pounds are all formed by such morphemes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折語素): For the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case,…word (part of speech unchanged) . He was reading a letter then.In English, most inflectional morphemes are suffixes.Morphology and WordformationIn wordformation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A root can be free or bound. All free morphemes are free roots such man, earth, ... A bound root is a form that cannot stand alone but has to bine with other morphemes to make word