【正文】 英語語言學(xué)筆記1LinguisticsChapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguisticsl What is language?n Different definitions of languageu Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)u [Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)u Language is a purely human and noninstinctive method of municating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.n Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the multifaceted nature of language.n As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication.l Features of human languagen Creativityu Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages.u The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.n Dualityu Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.u Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.u Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds.n Arbitrarinessu The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.u There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.n Displacementu There is no limit in time or space for language.u Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.n Cultural transmissionu Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.u Language is a way of transmitting culture.n Interchangeabilityu All members of a speech munity can send and receive messages.n Reflexivityu Human languages can be used to describe themselves.u The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.l Functions of language – three metafunctionsn The ideational functionu To identify things, to think, or to record information.n The interpersonal functionu To get along in a munity.n The textual functionu To form a text.l Types of languagen Genetic classificationn Typological classificationu Analytic language – no inflections or formal changes, grammatical relationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese and Vietnameseu Synthetic language – grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words, typically by changing the inflectional endings, such as English and Germanu Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units, with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such as Japanese and Turkishl The myth of language – language originn The Biblical accountu Language was God’s gift to human beings.n The bowwow theoryu Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.n The poohpooh theoryu Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.n The yoheho theoryu Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.n The evolution theoryu Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.l What is linguistics?n Linguistics is the scientific study of language.u Observing amp。 questioningu Formulating hypothesesu Verifying the hypothesesu Proposing a theoryn Branches of linguisticsu Internal branches: intradisciplinary divisionsl Phoneticsl Phonologyl Morphologyl Syntaxl Semanticsu External branches: interdisciplinary divisionsl Pragmaticsl Psycholinguisticsl Sociolinguisticsl Applied linguisticsl Computational linguisticsl Neurolinguisticsn Features of linguisticsu Descriptiveu Dealing with spoken languageu SynchronicChapter 2 Phoneticsl What is phonetics?n Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.n Subbranches of phoneticsu Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech soundsu Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech soundsu Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsl The speech organsn Where does the air stream e from?u From the lungn What is the function of vocal cords?u Controlling the air streamn What are the cavities?u Oral cavityu Pharyngeal cavityu Nasal cavityl Transcription of speech soundsn Units of representationu Segments (the individual sounds)n Phonetic symbolsu The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).u The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.u In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.l Description of speech soundsn Description of English consonantsu General feature: obstructionu Criteria of consonant descriptionl Places of articulationl Manners of articulationl Voicing of articulationu Places of articulationl This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound.n Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]n Labiodental: [f] [v]n Interdental: [W] [T]n Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]n Palatal: [F] [V] [tF] [dV] [j]n Velar: [k] [g] [N]n Glottal: [h]u Manners of articulationl This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is pletely blocked or partially obstructed.n Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]n Fricatives: [s] [z] [F] [V] [f] [v] [W] [T] [h]n Affricates: [tF] [dV]n Liquid