【正文】 grammatical and what are ungrammatical.l Knowledge of sentence structuren Structural ambiguityu Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more than one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would e yesterday can be interpreted in different ways.n Word orderu Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For example, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom loves Mary or Mary loves Tom.n Grammatical relationsu Native speakers know what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough and We don’t have enough boats, the word enough is related to different words in the two sentences.n Recursionu The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For example, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you are happy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy.n Sentence relatednessu Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.n Syntactic categoriesu A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider the following sentences:l The child found the knife.l A policeman found the knife.l The man who just left here found the knife.l He found the knife.u All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun phrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject. The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.l Traditional grammarn In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech.n Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, …n Compulsory elements of a sentence: subject, verb, object, plement, adverbial…n Nouns: number, case, gender…n Verbs: tense, aspect, voice…n Adjectives and adverbs: parative and superlative degreesn Agreement in number/person/gendern Parsing: trying to make detailed analysis in structurel Structural grammarn Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with the interrelationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are interrelated to one another.n Form classu Form class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar.u Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in the same form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every, etc. can be placed before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into one form class.u These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution.n Immediate constituent (IC) analysisu Structural grammar is characterized by a topdown process of analysis.u A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the ponents of the sentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Each section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut into constituents. This ongoing cutting is termed immediate constituent analysis.u Examples:l Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and womenl The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.u In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but also vertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity and the hierarchy of sentence structure.l I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology |||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be reexamined.u Two advantages of IC analysis:l It can analyze some ambiguities.l It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.l Transformationalgenerative (TG) grammarn Background and the goal of TG grammaru Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.l Adequacy of observationl Adequacy of descriptionl Adequacy of explanationu Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules – phrase structure rules and transformation rules – which are followed by speakers of the language.u TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.n Syntactic categoriesu Noun Phrase (NP)u Verb Phrase (VP)u Sentence (S)u Determiner (Det)u Adjective (Adj)u Pronoun (Pro)u Verb (V)u Auxiliary Verb (Aux)u Prepositional Phrase (PP)u Adverb (Adv)n Phrase structure (PS) rulesu S → NP VP(Det) (Adj) Nu NP →{Prou VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)u PP → P NPn Tree diagrams (omit)n Recursion and the infinitude of languageu S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NP and PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on both sides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive. Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structure can grow endlessly.n Subcategorization of the lexicon.u The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smaller classes according to their syntactic characteristics is called subcategorization.n Transformational rules (Trules)u Particle movement Trulel John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.u Replacement Trulel John beat Tom. He beat Tom.l The house needs repairing (to be repaired).u Insertion Trulel A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in the pond.u Deletion Trulel They came in and (they) sat down.u Copying Trulel He is ing, isn’t he?l He has finished his homework, hasn’t he?u Reflexivization Trulel I wash me (myself).n TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.l Systematicfunctional grammarn Background and the goal of systemicfunctional grammaru M. A. K. Hallidayl Language is a system of meaning potential and a network of meaning as choices.l Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized through forms