【正文】 sentence stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. . ‘impott (n)im’port (v), ‘record (n)re’cord (v)‘blackbird (pound)‘black ‘bird (nonpound)2 The meaningdistinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the binations of –ing forms and nouns. . ’dining room(pound)sleeping ’baby (nonpound)Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the ponents of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. . He is driving my drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fallrise tone, the risefall tone.The falling tonewhat is said is a straight forward, matteroffact statement.The rising tonemake a question of what is said.The fallrise toneindicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to words. . beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to words.2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemesthe minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be bined wit others. . –ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. . –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes.inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, . in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes bine to form words.Part Five Compoundspound words: A bination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordsthe noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the pound will be in this category: . post box, landlady (n+n=n), blueblack, icycold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the pound.. under ‘take (v), in’action (n), up’lift (v)3 It is often the case that pounds have different stress patterns from the nonpounded word sequence.. ‘redcoat, ‘greenhouse are pounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a pound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.. bigwig, highbrow, jackinabox, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very mon and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: SyntaxPart One: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are bined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: Categories1. Wordlevel categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, VWordlevel categoriesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word’s category?1 Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjective