【正文】 nguistics: Phonetics 語音學(xué), Phonology 音位學(xué), Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué), Syntax 句法學(xué), Semantics 語義學(xué), Pragmatics 語用學(xué) Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, petence and performance.Prescriptive vs. descriptive: 規(guī)定性和描寫性A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct and standard” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive while modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronic:共時(shí)和歷時(shí) The description of a language at some point of time is a synchronic study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachrony).An essay entitled “On the Use of THE” may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration. Speech and writing: 口語和書面語 ? The two major media of linguistic munication. Speech is primary because: 1. It existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write。 2. Messages can be carried though time so that we can read the books in the past。 performance: influenced by psychological and social factorsChomsky: a linguist should study the petence instead of performance. Saussure: a sociological view of languge langue=a matter of social conventionsChomsky: psychological point of view petence=a property of the mind of each individual Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsF. de Saussure 1916 Course in General LingusiticsTraditional grammar: prescriptive, priority of written word, Latinbased frameworkModern linguistics: descriptive, priority of spoken, a universal framework LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication. It is a system, because linguistic elements are arranged according to rules, rather than randomly.It is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books” and also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” – Romeo and JulietIt is vocal because the sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children can only learn to speak before they write also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writing.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is humanspecific.Design Features (識(shí)別特征): arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal munication. “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.” By Bertrand Russell. Arbitrariness: 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性 Different languages have different ways to construct the words into a sentence (syntax).Duality: 雙層性 two sets of structure or patterningAt the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, meaningless by themselves. Secondary units (sounds) 底層結(jié)構(gòu)The sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (morphemes, words) , which are found at the higher level of the system. Primary units (meaning)上層結(jié)構(gòu)Productivity/creativity:能產(chǎn)性、創(chuàng)造性 It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Partially originating from its duality。 it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world39。 Narrow transcription: transcription with lettersymbols together with the diacritics. English Sounds: They are divided into consonants and vowels, according to the obstruction whatsoever.If the air stream ing from the lungs meets with no obstruction, the sound produced is a vowel。] [h] affricatives: [t∫] [dЗ] liquids: [l] [r] nasals: [m] [n] [?] glides: [w] [j] In terms of place of articularionbilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w] labiodental: [f] [v] dental: [θ] [240。 the openness of the mouth。 the length of the vowels.[i:] [i] [e] [230。 語音研究的方法 [s], [i], [t]Phonology: how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic munication。?], [ai240。Specifier（標(biāo)志成分）: the words on the left side of the heads。s plement is included in the head. A certain lexical item requires a certain type of plement. . to appear, to cut a tree, to give him a book A sentencelike construction=a plement Miss Hebert believes that she will win. plementizer, plement clause, plement phrase, matrix clause The expanded XP rule: XP→ (spec)((Mod) X (plement﹡)(Mod)SentenceStructuralist view: (Bloomfield) It is a maximum free form。 Do insertion, Wh movement → Move a Inversion (Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. → Move Infl to C.) The train will arrive. → Will the train arrive?Trace(語跡): records of the movement of a word.Do Insertion: Used to form a yesno question without an overt Infl. . Birds fly. Step 1: Birds do fly. (Insertion of Do)Step 2: Do birds fly? (Inversion of Do)Dstructure and SstructureDeep structure: The syntactic structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head39。t fly.Organization of the Syntactic Component the xp rule ↓ deep structure←subcategorization restricts choice of plement ↓ transformations ↓ surface structure Wh MovementDeep structure of Wh questions.