【正文】 tion to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.Expressive function, or emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.Social function, or interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. Speech Elements and Function Russianborn structural linguist Roman Jakoson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific function.addresseremotive 感情功能 addresseeconative 意動功能 contextreferential 指稱功能message poetic 詩意性功能 contact phatic munion 應(yīng)酬功能 code metalinguistic 元語功能addresseremotive 感情功能 The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of munication. . I hate what they are planning for me.addresseeconative 意動功能 The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking. . Why not go and see another doctor?contextreferential 指稱功能 The addresser conveys a message or information. . As far as I know, the earth’s resources are being astonishingly wasted.messagepoetic 詩意性功能 The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. . poetrycontact phatic munion 應(yīng)酬功能 The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. . Good morning. // 吃飯了嗎？God bless you. Nice day. code metalinguistic 元語功能 The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. . Let me tell you what the word “water” means.Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics, 3 branches of phonetics, Classification of English consonants and vowels, Phonology, Difference between phonetics and phonology, Suprasegmental featuresPhonetics is the the study of the phonic medium of language。 2. Written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds. Writing gives language new scope and uses that speech does not have: 1. Messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other。 sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, biolinguistics, putational linguistics, stylistics, information theory, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc…Main branches of linguistics: Phonetics 語音學(xué), Phonology 音位學(xué), Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué), Syntax 句法學(xué), Semantics 語義學(xué), Pragmatics 語用學(xué) Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, petence and performance.Prescriptive vs. descriptive: 規(guī)定性和描寫性A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct and standard” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive while modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronic:共時和歷時 The description of a language at some point of time is a synchronic study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachrony).An essay entitled “On the Use of THE” may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration. Speech and writing: 口語和書面語 ? The two major media of linguistic munication. Speech is primary because: 1. It existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write。 performance: influenced by psychological and social factorsChomsky: a linguist should study the petence instead of performance. Saussure: a sociological view of languge langue=a matter of social conventionsChomsky: psychological point of view petence=a property of the mind of each individual Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsF. de Saussure 1916 Course in General LingusiticsTraditional grammar: prescriptive, priority of written word, Latinbased frameworkModern linguistics: descriptive, priority of spoken, a universal framework LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication. It is a system, because linguistic elements are arranged according to rules, rather than randomly.It is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books” and also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” – Romeo and JulietIt is vocal because the sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children can only learn to speak before they write also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writing.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is humanspecific.Design Features (識別特征): arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal munication. “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.” By Bertrand Russell. Arbitrariness: 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性 Different languages have different ways to construct the words into a sentence (syntax).Duality: 雙層性 two sets of structure or patterningAt the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, meaningless by themselves. Secondary units (sounds) 底層結(jié)構(gòu)The sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (morphemes, words) , whi