【正文】 period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration. Speech and writing: 口語和書面語 ? The two major media of linguistic munication. Speech is primary because: 1. It existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write。 and in another sense, language has the potential to create endless sentences.Unique to human language.Productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rulebound creativity” (by N. Chomsky).Displacement: 不受時(shí)空限制性 It refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moments of munication. (Hu) It gives human beings the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Cultural transmission: 文化傳遞性 While we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system is not genetically transmitted, but have to be taught and learned.Interchangeability：互換性 Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand messages. It is turntaking that makes social munication possible and acceptable.Functions of LanguageDescriptive function, or cognitive / referential / propositional function is assumed to be the main function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.Expressive function, or emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.Social function, or interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. Speech Elements and Function Russianborn structural linguist Roman Jakoson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific function.addresseremotive 感情功能 addresseeconative 意動(dòng)功能 contextreferential 指稱功能message poetic 詩意性功能 contact phatic munion 應(yīng)酬功能 code metalinguistic 元語功能addresseremotive 感情功能 The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of munication. . I hate what they are planning for me.addresseeconative 意動(dòng)功能 The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking. . Why not go and see another doctor?contextreferential 指稱功能 The addresser conveys a message or information. . As far as I know, the earth’s resources are being astonishingly wasted.messagepoetic 詩意性功能 The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. . poetrycontact phatic munion 應(yīng)酬功能 The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. . Good morning. // 吃飯了嗎？God bless you. Nice day. code metalinguistic 元語功能 The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. . Let me tell you what the word “water” means.Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics, 3 branches of phonetics, Classification of English consonants and vowels, Phonology, Difference between phonetics and phonology, Suprasegmental featuresPhonetics is the the study of the phonic medium of language。 the shape of the lips。 They can be deterniners, qualifiers, degree words, ... .Complement（補(bǔ)充成分）: the words on the right side of the heads.Modifier (修飾語): the words specifying optionally expressible properties of heads. AP proceeding the head ( a very careful girl), PP following he head ( open with care), and AdvP proceeding or following the head ( read carefully, carefully read). A moving story about a sentimental girlspecifier modifier head plementXP Rule: a single general phrasal structural rulethe XP rule →(specifier)X(plement)Coordination rule（并列規(guī)則）: Coordination: the phenomenon where the structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or.Subcategorization (次范疇化) The information about a word39。 the collection of all the features of the linguistic form。 Important theories of pragmatics: Speech act theory, Principle of conversation/conversational implicature Definition of Pragmatics: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful munication.As the process of munication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can。 Not applicable to nouns which denote things not existing in the world The conceptualist view（概念論）There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to。?]Rules in phonologyIn what way the phonemes are bined.Sequential rules (序列規(guī)則): the rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language. . spring, book, snake, ...Assimilation rule(同化規(guī)則): the rule assimilating one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. . incorrect, indiscreetDeletion rule(省略規(guī)則): the rule that tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. . signsignature Suprasegmental features 超音段特征Suprasegments are the units of language which are larger than the phonemesthe sound segments, such as syllables, words, phrases and sentences.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.Chapter 3 MorphologyMorphology, Wordformation processes, Closed class words and open class wordsDefinition 形態(tài)學(xué),詞法The branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. Morpheme, morph, allomorphMorpheme(語素/詞素): the smallest unit of meaning, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. . box+es, desire+ableIn view of wordformation, the morpheme is t