【正文】 typical of “clauses”.Phrase types: NP: the hardworking people VP: buy a book AP: very excited PP: behind the tablePhrase structure rulePhrase structure rule（短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則): a special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase. NP → (Det) N (PP) ... VP → (Qual) V (NP) ... AP → (Deg) A (PP) ... PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...Phrase Elements Head (中心成分）：the word around which a phrase is formed。 it is an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic form.A sentence is similar to a phrase, with Infl. as its head, NP its specifier and VP its plement. So it has the same internal structure as other phrases and is consistent with the XP rule.Transformations: It refers to the syntactic movement. It can help explain such language phenomena as yesno question, whquestion and passive voice.Auxiliary movement: Inversion。 Not applicable to nouns which denote things not existing in the world The conceptualist view（概念論）There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to。 the aspect of meaning dictionary pilers are interested in. . Dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form. (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979)Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world。 Important theories of pragmatics: Speech act theory, Principle of conversation/conversational implicature Definition of Pragmatics: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful munication.As the process of munication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can。 Some basic notions: pragmatics, context, sentence meaning。 the collection of all the features of the linguistic form。s subcategorization properties. Birds fly.Surface structure: The final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations. Do birds fly? Birds do fly. Birds didn39。 They can be deterniners, qualifiers, degree words, ... .Complement（補(bǔ)充成分）: the words on the right side of the heads.Modifier (修飾語): the words specifying optionally expressible properties of heads. AP proceeding the head ( a very careful girl), PP following he head ( open with care), and AdvP proceeding or following the head ( read carefully, carefully read). A moving story about a sentimental girlspecifier modifier head plementXP Rule: a single general phrasal structural rulethe XP rule →(specifier)X(plement)Coordination rule（并列規(guī)則）: Coordination: the phenomenon where the structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or.Subcategorization (次范疇化) The information about a word39。 語音使用的模式(發(fā)現(xiàn)語言中語音的組成規(guī)則并解釋發(fā)生的變化). [s] [i] [t]怎樣組合Phone, Phoneme, AllophonePhone: a phonetic unit or segment. 音素The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phones. A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. Some do, some don’t.Phoneme: a phonological unit of distinctive value .音位 An abstract unit, not any particular sound, represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. . /l/Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets and phonemes in slashes. . Phone [t]Phoneme /t/The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. 音位變體. Phonological Analysis 音位分析Principle: Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not.Minimal pairs(最小對(duì)立體): When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, they form a minimal pair. For example: [tin] [din], [bi:t] [bit]All these sound binations together constitute a minima set. 最小對(duì)立集This also applies to the vowels. Minimal pair test is used to find the important sounds in language. It leads to the identifications of over 40 important units in English, which are called phonemes(音位).Phonetically similar sounds related in two ways: pphonemic contrast and cplementary distribution pphonemic contrast: two distinctive phonemes. 音位對(duì)立 /p//b/, /t//d/cplementary distribution: the allophones of the same phoneme which do not distinguish meaning, but plement each other in distribution. (音位變體的)互補(bǔ)分布 spitpit, little, Free variants (音位的)自由變體The difference of pronouncing a sound causing by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. either [i:240。 the shape of the lips。 otherwise, it is a consonant.ConsonantsIn terms of manner of articulation: stops: [p] [b], [t] [d], [k] [g] fricatives: [f] [v] [s] [z] [∫] [З] [θ] [240。 and in another sense, language has the potential to create endless sentences.Unique to human language.Productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rulebound creativity” (by N. Chomsky).Displacement: 不受時(shí)空限制性 It refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moments of munication. (Hu) It gives human beings the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Cultural transmission: 文化傳遞性 While we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system is not genetically transmitted, but have to be taught and learned.Interchangeability：互換性 Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand messages. It is turntaking that makes social munication possible and acceptable.Functions of LanguageDescriptive function, or cognitive / referential / propositional function is assumed to be the main function of language. It is the func