【正文】 tween items（關(guān)系反義詞）[E] Sense relations between sentences句子之間的意義關(guān)系① X is synonymous with Y （X與Y同義）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y也假② X is inconsistent with Y （X與Y不一致）如果X真，Y假；X假，Y真③ X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X) （X蘊含Y(Y是X的一個含義)） 如果X真，Y一定真 （去過法國224。一定去過歐洲） 如果X假，Y有可能真（沒去過法國224。去/沒去過歐洲歐洲）④ X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X) （X預(yù)設(shè)Y(Y是X的先決條件)） 如果X真，Y一定真 如果X假，Y仍然真⑤ X is a contradiction X自我矛盾（總是假）⑥ X is semantically anomalous X語義反常[F] Componential analysis224。a way to analyze lexical meaning （成分分析法224。分析詞匯意義的方法）Semantic features語義特征: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning ponents, or semantic featuresPhoneme224。 distinctive features區(qū)別特征Show how those words are related in meaning[G] Predication analysis224。a way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech（述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析法224。分析句子意義的方法）① the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its ponents)② Grammatical meaning and semantic meaning 包括語法意義和語義意義Grammaticality 語法規(guī)范性 selectional restrictions選擇限制規(guī)則Semantic analysis:Predication (basic unit)述謂結(jié)構(gòu)224。 the abstract meaning of the sentence句子的抽象意義Argument(s) 變元（名詞成分） predicate謂詞（謂語）Logical participant(s) Sth said about an argument or states the logical relation linking the argument(s) in a sentenceThe predicate can be regarded as the main element.Tom TOM (SMOKE)224。 oneplace predicationKids like KID, APPLE (LIKE)224。 twoplace predicationIt’s (BE RAIN)224。 noplace predicationChapter 6 Pragmatics 語用學(xué)[A] The definition of pragmaticsPragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful munication（是研究某一語言的使用者如何使用句子而達到成功交際）What essentially distinguish semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.（在意義的研究中是否考慮到了語境的音素）If it is not, it is semantics.If it is, it is pragmatics.[B] Context 語境/上下文It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.（由說話人和聽話人共有的知識構(gòu)成）[C]Sentence meaning and utterance meaning ★句子意義和話語意義. The dog is barking.If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a selfcontained unit in isolation, then we treat it as a ，認為它是一個獨立于語境之外的單元，那就當(dāng)做句子If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an ，那就當(dāng)做話語Meaning of a sentence is abstract, and ，脫離語境的Meaning of an utterance is concrete, and ，依賴語境的Utterance is based on sentence meaning。 it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of munication, or simply in a ，它是句子的抽象意義在交際的真實場景中的體現(xiàn)[D] Speech Act Theory（言語行為理論）Direct speech actIndirect speech actFacethreateningFacesavingProposed by British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950sAnswer: what do we do when using language?Constatives敘事話語: statements that either state or describe, and thus verifiable陳述→可證實 Performatives行事話語: sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable (perform certain acts) 無法證實Gave the distinction between constatives and performatives and gave rise to a new model:[A speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking]說話人在說話時可能同時執(zhí)行三個動作① locutionary act:（言內(nèi)行為）the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 通過句法、詞匯、音位學(xué)傳遞字面意義② illocutionary act:（言外行為）the act of expressing the speaker’s intentionIt is the act preformed in saying ，表達說話的意圖③ perlocutionary act:（言后行為）the act performed by or resulting from saying somethingIt is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the Linguists are more concerned about or interested in illocutionary The classification of illocutionary act made by American philosopherlinguist John SearleFive general categories:① representatives:（闡述類）stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true陳述或描述，說出說話人認為正確的東西（陳述、信任、發(fā)誓、假設(shè)）② directives:（指令類）trying to get the hearer to do something 試圖讓聽話人做某事（邀請、建議、請求、忠告、警告、威脅、命令）③ missives:（承諾類）mitting the speaker himself to some future course of action說話人對未來的某個行為作出承諾（許諾、保證、發(fā)誓）④ expressives:（表達類）expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state表達對存在的狀態(tài)的感情或者態(tài)度（道歉、感謝、祝賀）⑤ declaratives:（宣告類）bringing about immediate changes by saying something通過說出某事帶來的立即的變化All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point, but they differ in their strength or ，但是它們在強度或力度上卻存在差異All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their syntactic [E] Principles of conversation (Cooperative principles) 會話原則或合作原則（CP原則）Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopherThe maxim of quantity: 數(shù)量準則（提供足量的信息，不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息）The maxim of quality: 質(zhì)量準則（不說假話，不說缺乏足夠證據(jù)的話）The maxim of relation: 關(guān)系準則（有相關(guān)性）The maxim of manner: 方式準則（避免表達艱澀，避免歧義，簡潔，避免冗繁，有條理）Significance重要性: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.它解釋了說話人是如何表達字面意義之外的信息名詞解釋：Linguistic LanguagePhonologyPhonePhonemeAllophoneMorphemeDerivational morphemeInflectional morphemeSyntaxSemanticsSense and Referenc