【正文】 in linguistic munication. Phone, phoneme, allophone Phone ? A phone a phoic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don?t, . [ bI:t ] amp。 [ bIt ], [spIt] amp。 [sphIt]. Phoneme ? A phoneme is a phonological unit。 it is a unit of distinctive value。 an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phoic context, . the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt]. Allophone ? Allophones the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phoic environments. Phonemic contrast, plementary distribution and minimal pair. Phonemic Contrast ? Phonemic contrastdifferent or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, . /b/ and /p/ in [ bIt ] and [pIt]. Complementary Distribution ? Complementary distributionallophones of the same phoneme are in plementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phoic contexts, . dark [l] amp。 clear [l], aspirated [p] amp。 unaspirated [p]. Minimal Pair ? Minimal pairwhen two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound binations are said to form a minimal pair, . beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat. Some Rules of Phonology ? Sequential rules ? Assimilation rule ? Deletion rule Sequential Rules ? Sequential rules the rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language, . in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb. ? If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. Sequential Rules ? If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the bination should obey the following three rules, . spring, strict, square, splendid, scream. a) the first phoneme must be /s/, b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/, c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/. * [ N ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, . in Cantonese: “牛肉，我， 俄語(yǔ) ……” Assimilation Rule ? Assimilation ruleassimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, . the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phoic contexts: ? indiscreet alveolar [In] ? inconceivable velar [IN ] ? input bilabial [Im] Assimilation in Mandarin ? 好啊 hao wa ? 海啊 hai ya ? 看啊 kan na ? 唱啊 chang Na ? 跳啊 tiao wa …… Deletion Rule ? Deletion rule it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, . design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound。 but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic. Suprasegmental Features ? Suprasegmental featuresthe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme): ? stress ? tone ? intonation Syllable (what is syllable?) ? Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant. ? Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel. ? The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, . [mAn]. ? The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, munism”. Stress ? Word stress ? Sentence stress Word Stress ? The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, . a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word: verb: im5port。 in5crease。 re5bel。 re5cord … noun: 5import。 5increase。 5rebel。 5record … Word Stress ? Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a pound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: pound: 5blackbird。 5greenhouse。 5hotdog… noun phrase: black 5bird。 green 5house。 hot 5dog… Word Stress ? The meaningdistinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the binations of ing forms and nouns: modifier: 5diningroom。 5readingroom。 5sleepingbag… doer: sleeping 5baby。 swimming 5fish。 flying 5plane… Sentence Stress ? Sentence stressthe relative force given to the ponents of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed. ? Note: for pragmatic reasons, this rule is not always right, . we may stress any part in the following sentences. He is driving my car. My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday. Tone ? Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. ? English is not a tone language, but Chinese is. ma 媽 (level) ma 麻 (the second rise) ma 馬 (the third rise) ma 罵 (the fourth fall) Intonation ? When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. ? English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: ? falling tone (matter of fact statement) ? rising tone (doubts or question) ? the fallrise tone (implied message) For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.” Grammatical Functions of Intonations Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English. a) It may indicate diffe