【正文】 Other disciplines, even the hard sciences, have their controversies: what is the origin of the universe。 Economists suffer the butt of jokes such as, ―if you lay all of the economists in the world end to end you will never reach a conclusion.‖ 經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家們淪為笑柄，例如，“如果你把世界上所有的經(jīng) 濟(jì)學(xué)家們首尾相接地放在一起，你將永遠(yuǎn)都得不出結(jié)論”。 In addition to these factors, the Constitution expresses a desire to promote domestic tranquility, which brings us to what can be considered the legal roots of the contemporary administrative state. 除了這些因素以外， 憲法也表達(dá)了促進(jìn)國內(nèi)和平這一愿望，這可以被看做當(dāng)代行政國家發(fā)展的法律根源。 In sum, the political roots of development of contemporary public administration in the United States lie primarily in two political choices made by the government and society. 總而言之，美國當(dāng)代公共管理發(fā)展的政治根源主要在于政府和社會做出的兩個政治選擇。 Another source of administrative growth has been defense. The Department of War and Navy were created in the eighteenth century, but the military establishment did not emerge as the federal government’s largest administrative operation until after World War II. 行政國家發(fā)展的另一個根源就是國防。 The . Post Office was not viewed as an end itself, but rather as a means of promoting economic development and national cohesion. 美國的郵政并沒有被看做目的本身，而是被看做一種促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和國家凝聚力的手段。 However, it is also clear that the Constitution itself indicates the preference for public action in some areas. 然而，有一點也是顯而易見的，即：憲法本身也表明，在某些領(lǐng)域，公共行為是更好的選擇。 For instance, in the housing example, governments seek to assure that everyone is adequately housed by building and running public housing projects. Instead of paying private individuals to take care of the mentally retarded, governments build and operate mental health facilities for this purpose. 例如：在住房這個問題上， 政府尋求的是通過建造和管理公共住房 項目來保證每個人都有足夠的住房；政府建造和經(jīng)營精神健康機(jī)構(gòu)來照顧智障人士，而不是給私人提供資金來這到這個目的。 Similarly, various incentives can be built into the government’s system of taxation to promote individual behavior deemed in the mon interest. 同樣，在政府的稅收制度中也可以建立起各種刺激機(jī)制，以促進(jìn)那些符合公共利益的個人行為。 Farm subsidies pay private farmers to use the nation’s agricultural resources in the national interest. 農(nóng)業(yè)補助給農(nóng)民提供資金，讓他們以國家的利益來使用國 家的農(nóng)業(yè)資源。 Government could rely heavily upon private resources and incentives to serve their purpose. 政府可以倚重私有資源和資金鼓勵去達(dá)到其目的。 The idea that the state should provide such services did not develop in Western Europe until the 1660s, but now it is perhaps the most prominent feature of the administrative state. 國家應(yīng)該提供 此類服務(wù)的思 想一直到 17 世紀(jì) 60 年代才在西歐產(chǎn)生，但現(xiàn)在，這種思想也許是行政國家最顯著的 特征。 The Political Roots of the American administrative State 美國行政國家的政治根源 The constitutional government of the United States came into existence in 1789 with some clearly stated formal goals. 美國的憲法政府產(chǎn)生于 1789 年，在成立之初就有著明確闡明的正式 目標(biāo)。 that public administrators are crucial to the operation of contemporary government。 When one realizes that all these (and many more) can be viewed as ponents of a huge matrix where any one (or more) can be related to any other one (one more), the plexity and variety of the field of public administration is suggested. 在人們認(rèn)識到所有這些（和更多）東西可以被看做一個巨大矩陣的組成部分而且在這個矩陣中任何一個（或更多的）組成部分可以與其他（或更多的）組成部分發(fā)生聯(lián)系的時候，那么公共管理 領(lǐng)域的復(fù)雜性和多樣性便由此可見一斑了。 intergovernmental and interanizational administration。 federal/confederal administration。 and many other such factors (as well as their interrelationships). 除此之外，蓽有各種 涉及管理環(huán)境的關(guān)注：憲法和法律環(huán)境、政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)和社會結(jié)構(gòu)、要求和程序環(huán)境；社會及其組成部分的價值、歷史、傳統(tǒng)和習(xí)慣；任何特定時期組織、項目和特定相關(guān)成分的價值、歷史、要求和程卑 。 In additional, there are various concerns dealing with the environment and context of administration: the constitutional and legal context。 As modern and contemporary public administration evolved, it tended to develop a more or less regular set of subfields, approaches, and topical interests. 隨著現(xiàn)代和當(dāng)代公共管理的發(fā)展，公共管理趨向于發(fā)展一些比較正規(guī)的子域、方法和主題。 In the United States, it is relatively unusual for public administration to be a freestanding degree program at the baccalaureate level (though there are some wellestablished and prestigious programs of this sort—especially in schools of public affairs, schools of management, or schools of public administration —and this approach may be on the increase). 在美國，在學(xué)士階段把公共管理設(shè)立為一個獨立的學(xué)位課程，相對而言并不常見（雖然有 一些 成熟的、聲譽良好的這類課裎，而且這種做法越來越被認(rèn)同，特別是在公共事務(wù)學(xué)院、管理學(xué)院或 者公共管理學(xué)院 )。 At the present time, public administration worldwide is in creative tension and undergoing rapid change and attempts at reconceptualization. 目前，世界范圍內(nèi)的公共管理正處于一種創(chuàng) 造性張力之中，經(jīng)歷著快速變化和重新概念化的嘗試。 All of these matters had effects upon politics, the social sciences, and public administration. 所有這些都對政治、社會科學(xué)和公共管理產(chǎn)生了影響。 The dynamics of the Cold War petition between the United States and Western allies and the USSR and its allies, and the manifestation of this petition in various forms of technical assistance, aid in economic development, and administrative assistance had an impact upon public administration. 美國及其盟友與蘇聯(lián)及其盟友在冷戰(zhàn)期間不斷的競爭，以及此競爭 以技術(shù)援助、經(jīng)濟(jì)援助和管理援助等多種形式的表現(xiàn)，都對公共管理產(chǎn)生過影響。 and with the subsequent human relations movement, which emphasized the human and social aspects of work environments and motivations somewhat in contradistinction to the scientific management movement. 人們也通常把美國早期的公共管理等同于科學(xué)管理，它是 以弗雷德里克 ?溫斯洛?泰勒為主創(chuàng)立的一個學(xué)派，強調(diào)管理的任務(wù)分析和效率方法；也等同于隨后的人際關(guān)系運動，這場運動強調(diào)工作環(huán)境和工作動機(jī)的人的和社會方面，于此與科學(xué)管理運動有些不同。 Development of the Field 公共管理領(lǐng)域的發(fā)展 It is usual to date the contemporary social scientific awareness of bureaucracy (a term which can include both private, or ―business‖ administration and public administration) with the work of the German social scientist Max Weber (18641920). 人們通常把當(dāng)代對官僚機(jī)構(gòu)（這個術(shù)語包括私人或“商業(yè)”管理和公共管理）的社會科學(xué)認(rèn)識 追溯到德國社會科學(xué)家馬克斯?韋伯（ 1864— 1920)的研究。 sometimes water, utilities, sewers, health care, education, and other benefits are provided in this way. 有時，水、電力、下水管道、醫(yī)療保健、教育以及其他利 益就是以這種方式提供的。這就擴(kuò)展了公共管理的含義。 This belief and related understandings have led to significant public administration attention to policy and policy proc