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【正文】 th the civilizations as units identified, he presented the history of each in terms of arose in response to some set of challenges of extreme difficulty, when “creative minorities” devised solutions that reoriented their entire Challenges and responses were physical, as when the Sumerians exploited the intractable swamps of southern Iraq by organizing the Neolithic inhabitants into a society capable of carrying out largescale irrigation projects。or social, as when the Catholic Church resolved the chaos of postRoman Europe by enrolling the new Germanic kingdoms in a single religious When a civilization responds to challenges, it declined when their leaders stopped responding creatively, and the civilizations then sank owing to nationalism, militarism, and the tyranny of a despotic Toynbee argued that “Civilizations die from suicide, not by murder.” For Toynbee, civilizations were not intangible or unalterable machines but a network of social relationships within the border and therefore subject to both wise and unwise decisions they Jaspers and the Axial Age（軸心時代）Axial Age or Axial Period(Achsenzeit, “axis time”)is a term coined by German philosopher Karl Jaspers to describe the period from 800 to 200 BC, during which, according to Jaspers, similar revolutionary thinking appeared in Persia, India, China and the period is alsosometimes referred to as the Axis , in his The Origin and Goal of History, identified a number of key Axial Age thinkers as having had a profound influence on future philosophies and religions, and identified characteristics mon to each area from which those thinkers saw in these developments in religion and philosophy a striking parallel without any obvious direct transmission of ideas from one region to the other, having found no recorded proofof any extensive intermunication between Ancient Greece, the Middle East, India, and held up this age as unique, and one to which the rest of the history of human thought might be 39。 approach to the culture of the middle of the first millennium BC has been adopted by other scholars and academics, and has bee a point of discussion in the history ofreligion.
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