【正文】 luster of firms can create a pooled market for workers with highly specialized 有專業(yè)化技術(shù)的工人創(chuàng)造一個(gè)完善的勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)。 ? It is an advantage for:優(yōu)勢(shì)明顯： ?Producers對(duì)生產(chǎn)者 ? They are less likely to suffer from labor 缺的問題。 ?Workers對(duì)工人 ? They are less likely to bee 。 54 ? Knowledge Spillovers知識(shí)外溢 ? Knowledge is one of the important input factors in highly innovative 高創(chuàng)新行業(yè)的重要投入要素 ? The specialized knowledge that is crucial to success in innovative industries es from專業(yè)知識(shí)對(duì)于成功創(chuàng)新非常重要，是因?yàn)?: ?Research and development efforts Ramp。D努力 ?Reverse engineering 模仿 ?Informal exchange of information and ideas非正式的信息交流 55 ? External Economies and Increasing Returns外部經(jīng)濟(jì)與收益遞增 ? External economies can give rise to increasing returns to scale at the level of the national 引起國家產(chǎn)業(yè)水平上的規(guī)模收益遞增 ? Forwardfalling supply curve向下傾斜的供給曲線 ?The larger the industry’s output, the lower the price at which firms are willing to sell their ，廠商銷售的價(jià)格越低。 56 ? External Economies and the Patter of Trade外部經(jīng)濟(jì)與貿(mào)易模式 ? A country that has large production in some industry will tend to have low costs of producing that 規(guī)模生產(chǎn)具有比較低的成本 ? Countries that start out as large producers in certain industries tend to remain large producers even if some other country could potentially produce the goods more 大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)時(shí)，即使當(dāng)其他國家能更低廉地生產(chǎn)該商品，其也將保持大生產(chǎn)者地位。 ?Figure 69 illustrates a case where a pattern of specialization established by historical accident is ，即使不具有比較優(yōu)勢(shì)。 67 External Economies and International Trade外部經(jīng)濟(jì)與國際貿(mào)易 57 Figure 69: External Economies and Specialization外部經(jīng)濟(jì)與專業(yè)化 ACSWISS Q1 P1 Price, cost (per watch) Quantity of watches produced and demanded ACTHAI 2 1 C0 D 58 ? Trade and Welfare with External Economies 外部經(jīng)濟(jì)下的貿(mào)易與福利 ? Trade based on external economies has more ambiguous effects on national welfare than either trade based on parative advantage or trade based on economies of scale at the level of the 的貿(mào)易對(duì)國家福利的影響比基于比較優(yōu)勢(shì)和內(nèi)部規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)的貿(mào)易更具不確定性。 ?An example of how a country can actually be worse off with trade than without is shown in Figure 貿(mào)易可能使一個(gè)沒有貿(mào)易時(shí)的福利水平更低。 59 Figure 610: External Economies and Losses from Trade 外部經(jīng)濟(jì)與貿(mào)易損失 ACSWISS P1 Price, cost價(jià)格和成本 (per watch) Quantity of watches produced and demanded手表的生產(chǎn)量和需求量 ACTHAI 2 1 C0 DTHAI DWORLD P2 60 ? Dynamic Increasing Returns動(dòng)態(tài)收益遞增 ? Learning curve學(xué)習(xí)曲線 ?It relates unit cost to cumulative 本的關(guān)系 ?It is downward sloping because of the effect of the experience gained though production on 線表明通過生產(chǎn)獲取的經(jīng)驗(yàn)對(duì)生產(chǎn)成本產(chǎn)生影響。 ? Dynamic increasing returns動(dòng)態(tài)收益遞增 ?A case when costs fall with cumulative production over time, rather than with the current rate of 產(chǎn)量而非當(dāng)前勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率下降的情況 ? Dynamic scale economies justify 收益遞增 為保護(hù)主義提供了借口 ?Temporary protection of industries enables them to gain experience (infant industry argument).短暫的保護(hù)能使幼稚工業(yè)獲取經(jīng)驗(yàn)（幼稚工業(yè)論觀點(diǎn)） 61 Figure 611: The Learning Curve(P154) L Unit cost Cumulative output L* C*0 C1 QL 62 Summary ? Trade can result from increasing returns or economies of scale, that is, from a tendency of unit costs to be lower at larger levels of output. ? Economies of scale can be internal or external. ? The presence of scale economies leads to a breakdown of perfect petition. ? Trade in the presence of economies of scale must be analyzed using models of imperfect petition. 63 Summary ? In monopolistic petition, an industry contains a number of firms producing differentiated products. ? Intraindustry trade benefits consumers through greater product variety and lower prices. ? In general, trade may be divided into two kinds: ? Twoway trade in differentiated products within an industry (intraindustry trade). ? Trade in which the products of one industry are exchanged for products of another (interindustry trade). 64 Summary ? Dumping occurs when a firm charges a lower price abroad than it charges domestically. ? Dumping can occur only if two conditions are met: ? The industry must be imperfectly petitive. ? Markets must be geographically segmented. ? External economies give an important role to history and accident in determining the pattern of international trade. ? When external economies are important, countries can conceivably lose from trade. 65 Reading ? 孫 杰 (1997):克魯格曼的理論 “ 接口 ” 和諾斯的“ 貿(mào)易由制度啟動(dòng) ” 命題 —— 關(guān)于貿(mào)易理論的發(fā)展和制度創(chuàng)新比較優(yōu)勢(shì)的思考 ?！督?jīng)濟(jì)研究》 12期 ? 杜楊：中國行業(yè)內(nèi)貿(mào)易的影響因素分析 66 作業(yè) ? P146,