【正文】 ional approach: according to their discourse functions, sentences can be divided into declarative陳述句, interrogative疑問句, imperative 祈使句and exclamatory感嘆句sentences.3. Communicative approach syntactic function and category1) syntactic function：subject, verb, object, plement, adverbial2) category—classes and functions. (n, v, adj) : number, gender, case, concord and government, tense and aspect transformational rules1) ★deep structure and surface structure考定義Deep structure: is the abstract structure and can be said to be the propositional core of the sentence. It shows the basic form of a sentence with all the necessary information to derive a wellformed sentence.Surface structure: is the actually produced structure. It is a relatively abstract sentence structure resulting from the application of base rules and transformational rules. (ambiguous: clever boys and girls)Transformation: the relationship between deep structure and surface structureSentence transformations: have two ponents: Structural Analysis(SA)/ Structural Description(SD) and Structural Change(SC).l Chapter 5 semantics Approaches to Meaning1) Meaning: there are two traditional schools of theories of meaning: the reference theory and the representation theory.2) ★L(fēng)eech’s seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning 概念意義(denotative/ cognitive meaning): man[+Human][+Male][+Adult]Associative meaning: connotative meaning 內(nèi)涵意義。 social meaning 社會意義；affective meaning 感情意義；reflected meaning 反映意義；collocative meaning 搭配意義。 thematic meaning主題意義 3) three approaches to meaning: the traditional approach, the functional approach, the pragmatic approach. Semantic field and semantic relations1) ★semantic field考名詞解釋Semantic field refers to the organization of related lexemes into a system which shows their relationship to one another.2) synonymy and antonymysynonyms are words or expressions that share mon semantic features. True synonyms are rare. They may differ in the following aspects: ① difference in origin (housemansion, liftelevator)② difference in the shade of meaning (amazeastound)③difference in socioexpressive meaning (hoursechargernag)④ difference in stylistic meaning (formal English slang English)⑤ difference in collocation and distribution (accuse ofcharge with)Antonymy is the relationship of oppositeness of meaning. Categories: plementary antonyms/nongradable antonyms(deadalive)。 gradable antonyms。 relational opposites(wifehusband) 3) meronymy 整體部分關(guān)系(treeroot,trunk,branch,leaf)and hyponymy 上下義關(guān)系 (dog, catwildlife)4) polysemy 一詞多義(ill)and homonymy同音異義（meetmeat）5) intersentential句際 semantic relations: entailment蘊涵(logically follow), presupposition前提 and Semantic analysis1) ★ponential analysis 語義成分分析Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic ponents or semantic features. Each word has certain semantic elements of its own. For example, man, woman, child share the semantic element “adult” and “male”.The primitive semantic elements are called semantic ponents or semantic features. (“animate”, ”human”, ”adult”, ”male” are primitive semantic elementsthey don’t require definition。 “domestic animal” is nonprimitivethey can be further analyzed into primitive semantic elements such as “domestic” and ”animal”)A particular characteristic of ponential analysis is that the semantic ponents of a word are generally analyzed in binary opposition. ([+noun] [human])The advantages of Componential analysis: throw new light on such lexical semantic relations as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and metaphor。 give a better account for the acceptability of syntagmatic bination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach。 help to answer the question “ what meaning does a given phrase or sentence have?” 2) predication analysis述謂分析Predication analysis is an approach to sentential meaning which breaks down predications of preposition, questions, mands, etc. into the two types of constituents：arguments and a predicate. Arguments refer to logical participants(usually functioned by nominal phrases名詞性從句—the dog, a hare) and the predicate is the relational element(usually functioned by verb phrases—chasing or prepositionsbeside).Four types of predicate：Twoplace predicate：A predicate governs two arguments, “have you any friends here?” ”the pond in front of the house”；Oneplace predicate：a predicate governs only one argument,” she smiled.” ；Noplace predicate：It governs no argument, “it is blowing hard.”；Threeplace predicate：“he told us an amusing story.”Some predicates are symmetric對稱(A is married to B) and others are asymmetric不對稱(A killed B)3) tautology and metaphortautology重復(fù)，累贅：refers to a proposition which is automatically true by virtue of its meaning but informatively empty. For example：A bachelor is unmarried.(anomalous 異常的amp。 uninformative)Metaphor is a nonliteral use of words and phrases in which one thing is spoken of as if it were some other thing. Three types：novel新奇的(he slept off the fumes of vanity)/conventional(I see)/dead metaphor(electric current)l Chapter6 Pragmatics and text analysis考試重點 語用學(xué)Pragmatics is the study of language usage from a functional perspective and is concerned with the principles that account for how meaning is municated by the speaker/writer and interpreted by the listener/reader in a certain context. . semantics: semantics focuses on the meaning that es from linguistic knowledge, while pragmatics concentrates on those aspects of meaning that cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and takes into account knowledge about the physical and social world.. syntax: pragmatics is concerned with the appropriateness of naturally occurring utterances.Text analysis is also concerned with language used in particular contexts. It is the study of linguistic units larger than sentences and clauses. speech act theory: many utterances do not municate information, but a