【文章內(nèi)容簡介】 nto smaller units. Human languages use a large number of orally transmitted units called phonemes. 2) minimal pairs最小語音主力: a pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, deed and seed. Phonemic distinctions can occur in any position within a word. The substitution of one feature for another does not result in a change in meaning. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation.3) ★distinctive features考名詞解釋Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown as either present [+] or absent []. Most distinctive features are binary, that is, they can have only one of two valuesplus or minus. [s] is [voiced] and [z] is [+voiced] sound patternsSound patterns refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the permissible arrangements of these sounds in words, and the processes for adding, deleting or changing sounds. It is highly unlikely that any two languages have exactly the same sound pattern.1） sequential constraints（語音）序列的限制All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.2） ★plementary distribution互補性分布When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in plementary distribution. The aspirated and the unaspirated phones(pea [Ph] and speed [P。 hit and sing [h][n]) are in plementary distribution. According to Wardhaugh, phonetically similar sounds in plementary distribution are allophones音位變體of a single phoneme. suprasegmental features 超音段特征★ syllable the syllable consists of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds paratively loud。 before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less sound. According to Roach, a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation. Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak(vowel), and the coda. 首音，音核，音節(jié)尾。A syllable that has no coda is called an unchecked or open syllable。 one with a coda is called a checked or closed syllable. The peak and coda of a syllable form a unit, the syllable core. Step consists of a single syllable with [st] as its onset, [e] as its peak and [p] as its coda. The first syllable of morale is open and the second, closed.1) Stress: Stress is generally defined as syllable prominence a syllable that is more prominent than others in a word or phrase is said to be stressed. Languages which have syllables that differ in stress are called stress language. Some words may have a primary stress and one or more than one secondary stress. No word has more than one primary stress. All the other stressed vowels are reduced to secondary stress.2) Assimilation 同化① Cf: final consonant Ci: initial consonantCf changes to bee like Ciregressive 逆向同化Ci changes to bee like Cfprogressive 順向同化② 連讀——for economy 省力Elision 元音省略Lots of vowels after”p,t,k”potato loss of final “v”lots of them3) Pitch: different languages use pitch differently.4) intonation and toneintonation refers to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable. By means of intonation, syllables are grouped into phrases, and phrases into sentencesfunctions: 1) grouping of words。 2) emphasizing words。 3) differentiating meanings.Tone refers to pitch variations. Tones do not mark the beginning and ending of words, nor do they even indicate to the speaker how many words there are in an utterance, (different from stress)Some functions of English tones:1) falling tone2) rising tone 3) fallingrising tone 4) rising falling tone 5) level tonel Chapter 3 morphology and lexicon 形態(tài)amp。詞匯Morphology形態(tài)學 studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they bine in word formation. Lexicon refers to the set of all the words and idioms of any language. We know the word, by the pany it keeps word and word classes1) word: Bloomfield, defines a word as “ a minimum free form”, that is the smallest form that can occur by itself.Characteristics of word: a word 1) is a sound or bination of sounds。 2) is symbolic。 3) is part of language. 4) helps human beings interact culturally with one another.2) word classes 詞格Closed class: prepositions, pronouns, determiners(that), conjunctions(and), modal verbs(may), primary verbsOpen class: nouns, full verbsLesser categories: numerals (words that denote number or the order.)and interjections(a word or phrase used as a sudden remark usually expressing feelings such as sorrow, surprise,regret)Openclass words and closedclass wordsProformsVariable and invariable wordsLexical words and grammatical words morpheme1) what is a morphemeA morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that carries grammatical and/or semantic meaning. It can not be further divided into smaller grammatical units. For example, unacceptable: un, accept, able.A morpheme may be a plete word (boy, accept) or an affix(s, un)The different variants of a morpheme are called allomorphs. : the plural morpheme “s” is pronounced [z] in dogs, [s] in pests, and [iz] in houses.2) types of morphemes1. Free morpheme(a morpheme can constitute a word/free form by itself) and Bound Morpheme(a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme). Example: un dress edprefix stem suffix(bound) (free) (bound=affix) affix: prefixes, infixes and suffixes The morpheme or bination of morphemes to which an affix is added is called a stema stem ma