【正文】 the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry. 圈地運(yùn)動和其它農(nóng)業(yè)改良為增加的人口提供了糧食，為工廠提供了勞動力，為工業(yè)提供了所需的一些原材料。 3．Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution 工業(yè)革命中一些重大創(chuàng)新 (6) James Watt’s steam engine in 1765. 1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽機(jī)。 4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution 工業(yè)革命的結(jié)果 （1） Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”。 英國成為了“世界工場”； （2） Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation’s wealth. 城鎮(zhèn)迅速興起，成為國家財(cái)富的源泉。 （3） Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions. 機(jī)械化摧毀了不能投入其中的人們的生活。工人們在可怕的條件下勞動與生活。 （4） The industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism. 工業(yè)革命產(chǎn)生了工人階級，即無產(chǎn)階級。后來形成了工會制度。 語國家概況精講系列（十二） III. The Chartist Movement (18361848) 憲章運(yùn)動（18361848） 三個改革法案 3．A People’s Charter 人民憲章 There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836, a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men’s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People’s Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. It had six points: (1)the vote for all adult males。 (2)voting by secret ballot。 (3)equal electoral districts。 (4)abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament。 (5)payment of members of Parliament。 (6)annual Parliaments, with a General Election every June. 1832年的《改革法案》和《新貧困法》引起了普遍不滿。1836年，一群技術(shù)工人和小店主組成倫敦工廠聯(lián)盟。他們于1838年起草了有關(guān)政治要求的憲章（人民憲章），想把它呈送給議會。憲章有六點(diǎn)內(nèi)容：（1）所有成年男子都有選舉權(quán)；（2）進(jìn)行無記名投票；（3）平等選區(qū)；（4）議員選舉廢除財(cái)產(chǎn)資格要求；（5）議員應(yīng)有報(bào)酬；（6）議會每年六月進(jìn)行大選。 4．Results of the Chartist Movement 憲章運(yùn)動的結(jié)果。 Lenin said that Chartism was “the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement.” 列寧說憲章運(yùn)動是“第一個廣泛的、真正群眾參與的，有政治組織形式的無產(chǎn)階級革命運(yùn)動。”英語國家概況精講系列（十三） I. Trade Unions and the Labour Party 工會和工黨 II. Colonial Expansion 英語國家概況精講系列（十四） VI. Twentieth Century 二十世紀(jì) 1. Britain and the First World War 英國和第一次世界大戰(zhàn) The Work War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 primarily between two European Power blocs: “the Central power”. Germany and AustriaHungary, and the “Allies”, Britain, France and Russia. During the war, the Britain lost much. Apart from the loss of manpower, there had been considerable disruption of the economy and society. Out of the war settlement came the establishment of the league of Nations. 第一次世界大戰(zhàn)是從1914年至1918年，戰(zhàn)爭主要在兩大歐洲集團(tuán)間進(jìn)行：“同盟國”，包括德國和奧匈帝國，和“協(xié)約國”，包括英國、法國和俄羅斯。一戰(zhàn)中英國損失慘重。除了勞動力損失，還有巨大的經(jīng)濟(jì)與社會瓦解。 2. Britain Between the Two World Wars 兩次世界大戰(zhàn)期間的英國 The effects of the New York Stock Market Crash of 1929 soon spread throughout Europe and by 1931 Britain was entering the Great depression. 1929年紐約股票交易所崩潰的影響迅速波及歐洲，到1931年英國進(jìn)入經(jīng)濟(jì)大蕭條。 3. Britain and the Second World War 英國與第二次世界大戰(zhàn) As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive momentum in Europe, Chamberlain, the Prime Minister, found his policy of appeasement of German aggression was no longer tenable, and was forced to declare war on Germany on September 3,1939. 當(dāng)阿道夫希特勒及納粹主義顯示他們對歐洲的侵略意圖時(shí)，首相張伯倫發(fā)現(xiàn)他的綏靖政策已站不住腳，只得于1939年9月3日對德宣戰(zhàn)。 英語國家概況精講系列（十八） Chapter 7 第七章 Government and Administration 英國政府機(jī)構(gòu) The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, the head of state is a king or a queen. The United Kingdom is governed, in the name of the Sovereign by His or Her Majesty’s Government. The System of parliamentary government is not based on a written constitution, the British constitution is not set out in any single document. It is made up of statute law, mon law and conventions. The Judiciary determines mon law and interprets statutes. 聯(lián)合王國是君主立憲制國家,國家的首腦是國王或女王。聯(lián)合王國以君的名義,由國王或女王陛下政府治理。英國的議會制度并不是基于成文憲法,英國憲法不由單一文件構(gòu)成,而由成文法,習(xí)慣法和慣例組成。司法部門裁定習(xí)慣法或解釋成文法。 I．The Monarchy 君主制 II, her title in the United Kingdom is “Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Her Other Realms and Territories, Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith. 伊莉莎白二世，她的全稱是“上帝神佑，大布列顛及北愛爾蘭聯(lián)合王國以及她的其他領(lǐng)土和領(lǐng)地的女王，英聯(lián)邦元首，國教保護(hù)者伊莉莎白二世?！? Queen is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, She is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, the manderinchief of all the armed forces and the “supreme governor” of the Church of England. She gives Royal Assent to Bills passed by parliament. 女王是國家的象征。從法律上講，她是行政首腦，立法機(jī)構(gòu)的組成部分，司法首腦，全國武裝部隊(duì)總司令，英國國教“至高無上”的領(lǐng)袖。她任命首相和重要的政府官員。對議會通過的法案給予御準(zhǔn)。 monarch actually has no real power. The monarch’s power are limited by law and Parliament. Constitutional monarchy began after the Glorious Revolution in 1688. 君主政體實(shí)際已無實(shí)權(quán)。它的權(quán)力受限于法律和議會。君主立憲制是從1688年的光榮革命后開始。 III．Parliament 議會 United Kingdom is a unitary, not a federal, state. Parliament consists of the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. 英國是中央集權(quán)國家，而不是聯(lián)邦制國家。議會由君主，上議院和下議院組成。 main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws。 (2) to provide, by voting for taxation, the means of carrying on the work of government。 (3) to examine government Policy and administrations, including proposal for expenditure。 and (4) to debate the major issues of the day. 議會的主要作用是：（1）通過立法；（2）投票批準(zhǔn)稅為政府工作提供資金；（3）檢查政府政策和行政管理，包括撥款提議；（4）當(dāng)天的議題辯論。 House of Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal. The main function of the House of Lords is to bring the wide experience of its members into the process of lawmaking. In other words, the nonelected House is to act as a chamber of revision, plementing but not rivaling the elect House. 貴族院（上議院）由神職貴族和世俗貴族組成。它的主要作用是用議員的豐富經(jīng)驗(yàn)幫助立法。換而言之，非選舉的上議院是修正議院，補(bǔ)充而非反對由選舉產(chǎn)生的下議院。 House of Common is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 Members of Parliament (MPs). It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority. 下議院（平民院）由成人普選產(chǎn)生，由651名議員組成。下議院擁有最終立法權(quán)。 is divided 651 constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns one member to the House of Comm