【正文】 into vernaculars and made the Bible accessible to every man。 ⑷He preached love and ideals of equality, and he was a fighter for democracy and nationalism, a humanist who helped to build a petent educational system in Germany. The Reformation was significant in the European civilization. Before Reformation, Europe was essentially feudal and medieval. In all aspects of politics, economy and spirit, it was under the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire. But after the Reformation things were different. In educational and cultural matters, the monopoly of the church was broken. In religion, Protestantism brought into being different forms of Christianity to challenge the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church. In language, the dominant position of Latin had to give way to the national languages as a result of various translations of Bible into vernacular. In spirit, absolute obedience became outmode and the spirit of quest, debate, was ushered in by the reformists. In word, after the reformation Europe was to take a new course of development, a scientific revolution was to be under way and capitalism was to set in with its dynamic economic principles. 7. What was Counter—Reformation? Who were the Jesuits? Are they still active now? The counter the Reformation and to bring back its vitality, the Roman Catholic Church mustered their forces to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements. In time, the Roman Catholic Church did reestablish itself as a dynamic force in European affairs. This recovery of power is often called by historians the CounterReformation. The seedbed for this Catholic reformation was Spain with the Spanish monarchy establishing the inquisition to carry out cruel suppression of heresy and unorthodoxy. Ignatius, a Spaniard who devoted his life to defending the Roman Catholic Church, and his followers called them the Jesuits members of the Society of Jesus. Today the Society of Jesus is still active with a membership of 31,000, having institutions in various parts of the world. 8. What did French Renaissance writers propose in their writings? ⑴The French Renaissance writer Rabelais expressed hid ideas in Gargantua and Pantagruel that the only rule of the house was “Do As Thou Wilt”—to follow our natural instinct。 ⑵Ronsard held that man of letters should write in a style that was clear and free from useless rhetoric。 ⑶The Essais of Montaigne records his views on life, death and his skepticism towards knowledge, in simple, straightforward style, his famous motto is “What do I know?” 9. Why did England e later than other countries during the Renaissance? In what way was English Renaissance different from that of other countries? Who were the major figures and what their contributions? Because of the War of Roses within the country and its weak and unimportant position in world trade, Renaissance came later in England than other European countries. Compared with the Renaissance in other countries, the Renaissance in England has the following features: ⑴It came later。 but when it did e, it was to produce some towering figures in English literature and the world literature。 ⑵The Renaissance in England found its finest expression in drama, crowned by Shakespeare。 ⑶The Renaissance in England enjoyed a period of political and religious stability under the reign of Elizabeth Ⅰ. The major figures of this period were William Shakespeare, Edmund Spencer, Sir Thomas more, Francis Bacon, and etc. Shakespeare has contributed to the world a legacy of literature heritage by turning out so many outstanding plays and poems. He was one of the two reservoirs of modern English language. Thomas More has written Utopia and depicted in this work an ideal nonChristian state where everybody lives a simple life and shares the goods in mon. He contributed to the western tradition of envisioning an ideal state. Spencer has influenced many English poets. 10. What were some of scientific advances during the Renaissance? During the Renaissance, many sciences has made great progress. Firstly, it was an age of geographical discoveries: Columbus has discovered the New World in 1492。 Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487。 da Gama discovered the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope in 1497。 Amerigo discovered and explored the mouth of the Amazon and accepted South America as a new continent. Secondly, Copernicus believed that the earth and other planets orbit about the sun and that earth is not at the center of the universe. Here began the modern astronomy. Thirdly, both da Vinci and Vesalius were good at anatomy. Vesalius wrote Fabrica and was regarded as the founder of modern medicine. Fourthly, printing was invented in Italy. Finally, Dante, Machiavelli, and Vosari have contributed a great deal to political science and historiography. Machiavelli was called “Father of political science” in the west.17世紀1. What were Galileo’s contributions to modern science?Galileo is the greatest name in physics in the 17th century. He has made contributions to the world:⑴He was the first to apply telescope to the study of the skies. He even made a telescope for himself and used it to observe the stars。⑵In 1609 he announced a series of astronomical discoveries which caught the attention of the whole of Europe. With the help of telescope, e proved that Ptolemy’s system would not work and that Copernicus’s hypothesis had been right。⑶Galileo discovered the importance of acceleration in dynamics and the law of inertia。⑷Galileo was the first to establish the law of falling bodies。⑸He invented thermometer.2. How did Kepler’s laws clarify and amend Copernican theory?Copernicus heliocentric theory was put forward only as a hypothesis. It was Kepler who supported him scientifically. Kepler is best known for his discovery of ht three laws of planetary motion, the three laws being called Kepler’s laws