【正文】 具有極為重要 的地位。中國保險投資范圍極其狹窄，主要集中在銀行存款和國債等固定收益類的金融產(chǎn)品上，投資收益低下，抗利率變動能力低。在目前 賠付水平較低（以 2021 年為例，全年綜合賠付率僅為 50％左右），保險業(yè)務經(jīng)營還有較大盈利空間的情況 下，依靠銀行存款、國債等固定收益類金融產(chǎn)品的收益穩(wěn)定，矛盾還不突出（事實上， 1996 年 8 月以來連續(xù) 8 次下調(diào)利率給壽險業(yè)帶來的數(shù)百億的巨額利差損，僅靠銀行存款、國債等固定收益類金融產(chǎn)品的增值收益已很難奏效）。隨著保險市場競爭日趨激烈，當保險業(yè)務經(jīng)營的盈利空間越來越小甚至出現(xiàn) 虧損時，保險公司通過合法的保險投資不能有效增強其償付能力，一旦 面臨投資收益 不足以彌補保單虧損時，可能 進行地下非法投資活動，以期獲得 較高的投資收益，使保險公司的經(jīng)營風險加大 ，造成金融市場混亂，也加大 了保險監(jiān)管部門的監(jiān)管難度。 造成中國保險投資渠道狹窄的原因是多方面 的，其中很重要 的兩點：一是投資環(huán)境遠未成熟客觀上限制了保險投資渠道拓寬。以證券市場為例， 1999 年 10 月起，保險投資渠道增加 了證券投資基金，但受制于中國證券市場較低的發(fā) 展水平和證券基金吸納保險投資的有限能力，導致 一方面 證券投資基金的收益不穩(wěn)定，另一方面 ，證券投資基金在保險投資中的比例有限。無論從投資比例和投資收益角度，證券投資基金還只是一種嘗試；二是保險公司面對投資風險的自我約束能力較差，保險監(jiān)管機構(gòu)不得不對保險投資渠道進行謹慎限制，實行嚴格監(jiān)管。比如：在《保險法》頒布實施之前，對保險投資監(jiān)管較松的情況 下，保險公司大量投資于不動產(chǎn)，企業(yè)貸款，不計風險，結(jié)果形成 巨額的呆賬和壞賬至今未能消除。 （三）監(jiān)管機構(gòu)缺乏必要的獨立性和權(quán)威性，影響其監(jiān)管的有效性 要保證任何 一項監(jiān)管的有效性，首先監(jiān)管機構(gòu)和監(jiān)管對象必須 是獨立的，尤其經(jīng)濟上必須 相互獨立。而作為 中國主要監(jiān)管機構(gòu)的中國保監(jiān)會在經(jīng)財政部和國家計委批準后，從 1999 年度起向作為 監(jiān)管對象的各商業(yè)保險公司和保險中介機構(gòu)征收保險業(yè)務監(jiān)管費，雖然實行收支兩條線，但中國保監(jiān)會（包括 派出機構(gòu)，下同） 的開辦費和必要的業(yè)務經(jīng)費開支，中國保監(jiān)會工作人員經(jīng)費開支，全國保險市場的信息網(wǎng)絡系統(tǒng)購置安裝費以及與境外保險公司及監(jiān)管部門的業(yè)務往來、信息交流費用（國外保險資金通?？赏顿Y債券、抵押貸款、股票、不動產(chǎn)及保險貸款等。不同國家投資重點有所不同，以美國為例，股票和不動產(chǎn)是保險資金的重要 投資途徑，而日本則以保險貸款為主）等都來源于此，這在客觀上已使監(jiān)管部門與作為 被監(jiān)管對象的保險公司、保險中介機構(gòu)等在利益上掛鉤，監(jiān)管部門的獨立性和公正性受到質(zhì)疑。其次，保險監(jiān)管機構(gòu)的權(quán)威性是實現(xiàn)有效監(jiān) 管的另一保證，其重要 表現(xiàn)就是 是否具有處置權(quán)，中國保監(jiān)會缺乏權(quán)威性也表現(xiàn)在 此。以市場準入為例，中國保監(jiān)會對保險公司的市場準入并沒有實際 的處置權(quán)力。加上中國保監(jiān)會的法律地位尚未確立，對監(jiān)管對象違規(guī)行為的行政處罰和法律制裁往往 也流于形式，造成這種狀況的根本原因是行政干預過多。 此外，在中國目前實行的市場行為和償付能力并重的監(jiān)管模式下，比較偏向于對市場行為合規(guī)性的靜態(tài)監(jiān)管，而忽視了真正的風險評 估和風險管理，特別缺少對保險機構(gòu)的動態(tài)跟蹤分析，使得監(jiān)管機構(gòu)和保險機構(gòu)之間存在嚴重的信息不對稱，監(jiān)管機構(gòu)很難通過對保險機構(gòu)市場行為監(jiān)管實現(xiàn)其監(jiān)管的目的；在償付能力監(jiān)管中，對準備金提取、保險投資、保單形式等都由中國保監(jiān)會制定或?qū)徟?，這一方面 在很大程度 上限制了保險公司的競爭空間，同時 也增大了監(jiān)管難度。 請您刪除一下內(nèi)容， O(∩ _∩ )O 謝謝！?。?2021 年中央電大期末復習考試小抄大全，電大期末考試必備小抄，電大考試必過小抄Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. It is synthesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechanism. The enzyme necessary for this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, carried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement of intracellular substance (cytoplasm). Acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release. When a nerve action potential reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released into the junction (synapse) between the nerve terminal and the ?effector‘ cell which the nerve activates. This may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. Thus electrical signals are converted to chemical signals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and nonnerve cells. This process is termed ?chemical neurotransmission‘ and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the German pharmacologist Loewi in 1921. Chemical transmission involving acetylcholine is known as ?cholinergic‘. Acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular junctions. At this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the socalled motor end plate. On release, acetylcholine acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (starting with depolarization of the motor endplate) which cause contraction of the muscle fibre. This is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a mand is required. The action of acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds。 an enzyme (cholinesterase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and an acetate ion. The choline is then available for reuptake into the nerve terminal. These same principles apply to cholinergic transmission at sites other than neuromuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. In the autonomic nervous system these include nervetonerve synapses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerve fibres on nonvoluntary (smooth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells。 in response to activation of this nerve supply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. Acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brain at nervetonerve synapses. To understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells it is necessary to understand membrane receptors. In postsynaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and some are receptors for acetylcholine. These are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a reversible fashion. It is the plex of receptor bined with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. Two major types of acetylcholine receptors exist in the membranes of cells. The type in skeletal muscle is known as ?nicotinic‘。 in glands, smooth muscle, and the heart they are ?muscarinic‘。 and there are some of each type in the brain. These terms are used because nicotine mimics the action of acetylcholine at nicotinic receptors, whereas muscarine, an alkaloid from the mushroom Amanita muscaria, mimics the action of acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter produced by neurons referred to as cholinergic neurons. In the peripheral nervous system acetylcholine plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. In the central nervous system acetylcholine is believed to be involved in learning, memory, and mood. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A through the action of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and bees packaged into membranebound vesicles . After the arri