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“女徒顧山”。(指是婦女犯罪判處鬼薪上山砍柴徒刑的,可以不親自服役,每月花三百錢雇人代替。) 《四》長孫無忌帶刀入宮案 ( 1)“八議”的內(nèi)容 答:中國封建王朝規(guī)定的對八種人犯罪要上奏皇帝進行特別審議,以便對其減刑或免刑的一種制度?!鞍俗h”是由《周禮 秋官 桐寇》中“八辟”演變來的,曹魏制定魏律時將“八辟”改為“八議”,指示:“功臣之子,法應(yīng)人議”?!鞍俗h”從魏律開始正式載入律典,成為刑法的一項基本原則,此后代相沿至明清律。所謂“八議”,即有議親 (皇親國戚)、議故(皇帝故舊)、議賢(有封建德行的所謂賢臣)、議能(所謂大才能的大臣)、議功(對封建王朝有大功勛者)、議貴(高官顯爵)、議勤(對封建統(tǒng)治有特殊勤勞者)、議賓(先朝君主的后代)。這八類人犯罪,依法享有免刑或減刑的特權(quán)。這是封建等級制在法律上的表現(xiàn),并使之法典化。 ( 2)“十惡”的內(nèi)容 答:將北齊律的“重罪十條”發(fā)展為“十惡”大罪,它是將危及封建國家根本利益的十條最嚴重的罪名,集中置于律首,以強調(diào)這十種犯罪是打擊的主要對象。加強對危害封建統(tǒng)治秩序行為的鎮(zhèn)壓;所謂“十惡”指謀反、謀大逆、謀叛、惡逆 、不道、大不敬、不孝、不睦、不義、內(nèi)亂。) ( 3)“八議” 與“十惡”的關(guān)系。 答:“八議”是指八類人犯罪,依法享有免刑或減刑的特權(quán),封建貴族的特權(quán),這是封建等級制在法律上的表現(xiàn),并使之法典化。在名例律中立下“十惡”專條,強調(diào)這些罪行的嚴重性質(zhì)。②犯“十惡”罪的人即使屬于八議的范圍,也不得享受議、請、減的照顧。)“八議” 與“十惡”相輔相成,共同為封建統(tǒng)治服務(wù)的。 《五》胡藍之獄 ( 1)明初時如何加強中央集權(quán)的 答:一是確立重典治亂世的立法指導(dǎo)思想。首先,重典治亂世。具體體現(xiàn)在重典治吏和重典治民兩方面。朱元 璋認為,國家的穩(wěn)定,首先取決于封建國家能否實行對于各級官吏的有效管理。他試圖通過重典治吏,來達到更好的治民、治國,強化中央集權(quán)。其次,禮刑并用。朱元璋也從歷史中意識到,一味強調(diào)鎮(zhèn)壓,僅靠嚴刑峻法,雖可以取得一時之效,但不能從根本上解決問題。他主張禮法并用,將禮的預(yù)防犯罪的職能同法的鎮(zhèn)壓的職能有機地結(jié)合起來。既堅持嚴刑酷法,又強調(diào)德禮教化,儒法結(jié)合,禮刑并用。再次,加強法制宣傳。朱元璋將立法與法制宣傳結(jié)合起來,要求老百姓知曉法律是如何規(guī)定的,用實際案例來教育老百姓。 二是嚴禁臣下結(jié)黨和內(nèi)外官交結(jié)。明朝統(tǒng)治者鑒 于唐、宋兩朝臣下結(jié)黨、削弱皇權(quán)、分散統(tǒng)治力量的教訓,在采取廢除丞相制度,不準后宮與宦官干預(yù)朝政等一系列措施以外,《大明律》中還專設(shè)“奸黨”條,規(guī)定:“若在朝官員,交結(jié)朋黨,紊亂朝政者,皆斬,妻子為奴,財產(chǎn)入官”。 “若犯罪,律該處死,其大臣小官巧言諫免,暗邀人心者,”;“若刑部及大小各衙門官吏不執(zhí)行法律,聽從上司主使,出入人罪者”等都構(gòu)成奸黨罪,要受到嚴厲懲治:本人處死,子為奴,財產(chǎn)入官。 三是嚴酷鎮(zhèn)壓危害君主專制統(tǒng)治的反抗行為。明律對“謀反、大逆”一律采用重罪加重的處罰原則。如凡謀反及大逆者,不僅本人要凌 遲處死,其被株連的親屬,包括祖父、父、子、孫、兄弟及同居之人,不分異姓,及伯叔、兄弟之子、不限籍之異同,亦不論篤疾、廢疾,凡年十六歲以上者,一律處以死刑,明律的株連范圍比唐律廣泛得多。 四 是嚴厲懲治貪官污吏。在《大明律》中規(guī)定:對于受財枉法的所謂“枉法贓”,從嚴懲處,一貫以下杖七十,八十貫則絞;對于監(jiān)守自盜,不分首從,并贓論罪,滿四十貫即處斬刑;對于執(zhí)行監(jiān)察職務(wù)的所謂“風憲官”的御史,若犯貪污罪比其它官吏加重兩等處刑。 ( 2)明初朱元璋的立法指導(dǎo)思想 答:明朝處于我國封建社會的后期,為了維持政治、經(jīng)濟不遭受 嚴重的破壞,君主專制統(tǒng)治更加強化,并發(fā)展到極端化的程序。這一時期的立法指導(dǎo)思想是開國皇帝朱元璋確立的,對整個明朝的立法活動都有深刻的影響。 一是重典治亂世。具體體現(xiàn)在重典治吏和重典治民兩方面。朱元璋認為,國家的穩(wěn)定,首先取決于封建國家能否實行對于各級官吏的有效管理。他試圖通過重典治吏,來達到更好的治民、治國,強化中央集權(quán)。 二是禮刑并用。朱元璋也從歷史中意識到,一味強調(diào)鎮(zhèn)壓,僅靠嚴刑峻法,雖可以取得一時之效,但不能從根本上解決問題。他主張禮法并用,將禮的預(yù)防犯罪的職能同法的鎮(zhèn)壓的職能有機地結(jié)合起 來。既堅持嚴刑酷法,又強調(diào)德禮教化,儒法結(jié)合,禮刑并用。 三是加強法制宣傳。朱元璋將立法與法制宣傳結(jié)合起來,要求老百姓知曉法律是如何規(guī)定的,用實際案例來教育老百姓。 ( 3)朱元璋重典治吏的措施 答:明朝從維護封建國家的根本利益出發(fā),嚴懲貪官污吏。一是制定明《大誥》。是朱元璋洪武 1820 年間親手制定的刑事特別法,兼有朱元璋對臣民的訓誡,是朱元璋重典治亂世,特別是重典治吏的的主張、實踐和措施?!洞笳a》包括《御制大誥》、《御制大誥續(xù)編》、《御制大誥三編》、《御制大誥武臣》 4 篇,共 236 條。內(nèi)容是懲治貪官污吏的 典型案例匯編。 二是采取嚴厲措施嚴懲貪官污吏?!洞竺髀伞芬?guī)定:對受財枉法的所謂 枉法贓 ,從嚴懲處,一貫以下杖七十,八十貫則絞;對于監(jiān)守自盜,不分首從,并贓論罪,滿四十貫即處斬刑;對于執(zhí)行監(jiān)察職務(wù)的 風憲官 御史,若犯貪污罪比其它官吏加重兩等處刑。 明《大誥》也側(cè)重打擊貪官污吏,且刑罰殘酷,如有“剝皮實草”等。 ( 4)《大明律》嚴禁臣下結(jié)黨的法律規(guī)定。 答:明朝統(tǒng)治者鑒于唐、宋兩朝臣下結(jié)黨、削弱皇權(quán)、分散統(tǒng)治力量的教訓,在采取廢除丞相制度,不準后宮與宦官干預(yù)朝政等一系列措施以外,《大明律》中還專設(shè)“奸黨 ”條,規(guī)定:“若在朝官員,交結(jié)朋黨,紊亂朝政者,皆斬,妻子為奴,財產(chǎn)入官”。 “若犯罪,律該處死,其大臣小官巧言諫免,暗邀人心者,”;“若刑部及大小各衙門官吏不執(zhí)行法律,聽從上司主使,出入人罪者”等都構(gòu)成奸黨罪,要受到嚴厲懲治:本人處死,妻子為奴,財產(chǎn)入官。 請您刪除一下內(nèi)容, O(∩ _∩ )O 謝謝?。?! 2021 年中央電大期末復(fù)習考試小抄大全,電大期末考試必備小抄,電大考試必過小抄 Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released from nerve endings (terminals) in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. It is synthesized within the nerve terminal from choline, taken up from the tissue fluid into the nerve ending by a specialized transport mechanism. The enzyme necessary for this synthesis is formed in the nerve cell body and passes down the axon to its end, carried in the axoplasmic flow, the slow movement of intracellular substance (cytoplasm). Acetylcholine is stored in the nerve terminal, sequestered in small vesicles awaiting release. When a nerve action potential reaches and invades the nerve terminal, a shower of acetylcholine vesicles is released into the junction (synapse) between the nerve terminal and the ‘effector’ cell which the nerve activates. This may be another nerve cell or a muscle or gland cell. Thus electrical signals are converted to chemical signals, allowing messages to be passed between nerve cells or between nerve cells and nonnerve cells. This process is termed ‘chemical neurotransmission’ and was first demonstrated, for nerves to the heart, by the German pharmacologist Loewi in 1921. Chemical transmission involving acetylcholine is known as ‘cholinergic’. Acetylcholine acts as a transmitter between motor nerves and the fibres of skeletal muscle at all neuromuscular junctions. At this type of synapse, the nerve terminal is closely apposed to the cell membrane of a muscle fibre at the socalled motor end plate. On release, acetylcholine acts almost instantly, to cause a sequence of chemical and physical events (starting with depolarization of the motor endplate) which cause contraction of the muscle fibre. This is exactly what is required for voluntary muscles in which a rapid response to a mand is required. The action of acetylcholine is terminated rapidly, in around 10 milliseconds。 an enzyme (cholinesterase) breaks the transmitter down into choline and an acetate ion. The choline is then available for reuptake into the nerve terminal. These same principles apply to cholinergic transmission at sites other than neuromuscular junctions, although the structure of the synapses differs. In the autonomic nervous system these include nervetonerve synapses at the relay stations (ganglia) in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions, and the endings of parasympathetic nerve fibres on nonvoluntary (smooth) muscle, the heart, and glandular cells。 in response to activation of this nerve supply, smooth muscle contracts (notably in the gut), the frequency of heart beat is slowed, and glands secrete. Acetylcholine is also an important transmitter at many sites in the brain at nervetonerve synapses. To understand how acetylcholine brings about a variety of effects in different cells it is necessary to understand membrane receptors. In postsynaptic membranes (those of the cells on which the nerve fibres terminate) there are many different sorts of receptors and some are receptors for acetylcholine. These are protein molecules that react specifically with acetylcholine in a reversible fashion. It is the plex of receptor bined with acetylcholine which brings about a biophysical reaction, resulting in the response from the receptive cell. Two major types of acetylcholine receptors exist in the m