【正文】 ndividuals. The fusion of hyphae is called plasmogamy. The fused hyphae containing haploid nuclei from two individuals is heterokaryotic. In some cases, plasmogamy results in cells with one nucleus from each individual. This condition is called dikaryotic. Eventually, two nuclei that originated from different individuals fuse to form a diploid zygote. Meiosis then produces either four haploid nuclei or four haploid cells. Asexual spores (無(wú)性孢子)are formed by the aerial mycelium of one organism. When these spores germinate, they bee organisms that are genetically identical to the parent. Sexual spores (有性孢子) result from the fusion of nuclei from two opposite mating strains of the same species of fungus. Organisms that grow from sexual spores will have genetic characteristics of both parental strains. VirusVirus（病毒的概念）：Viruses are a unique group of tiny infectious particles that are obligate parasites of cells, are not cells but resemble plex molecules posed of DNA or RNA. Most of them are so small () that an electron microscope is necessary to detect them.Structures of viruses: naked virus (nucleic acid, capsid)。⑦ More living adaptively in the land .Some fungi have long, branched, threadlike filaments called hyphae (菌絲), which aggregate together to form a tangled mycelium (菌絲體). In some fungi the hyphae have crosswalls called septa(橫隔) separating cells, which may nevertheless be joined by one or more pores, which permit cytoplasmic streaming, a form of internal transport.Fungi are categorized into phyla (divisions) based on the type of structures produced during sexual reproduction. Plants obtain energy from the sun, fungi do not。 革蘭氏陰性菌（G+）基體由2個(gè)環(huán)構(gòu)成。G+菌由于細(xì)胞壁厚，肽聚糖網(wǎng)層次多而交聯(lián)緊密，并且不含類脂，故以乙醇脫色時(shí)不會(huì)溶出縫隙，反而使肽聚糖網(wǎng)孔收縮，使染料滯留在細(xì)胞壁內(nèi)而使其染上紫色；反之，G菌由于細(xì)胞壁薄，外膜層類脂含量高，肽聚糖層薄和交聯(lián)度差，當(dāng)遇到乙醇時(shí)，以類脂為主的的外膜迅速溶解，這時(shí)薄而松散的肽聚糖網(wǎng)不能阻擋結(jié)晶紫與碘的復(fù)合物的溶出，故細(xì)胞退成無(wú)色。 they are intracellular parasites of animals, plants, or bacteria. 1, The Prokaryotes can be divided into two kingdoms, Bacteria and Archaea. The classification was first proposed by Woese based on the differences in 16S rRNA sequence.2, Prokaryotic microorganism（原核微生物）: It is an singlecelled organism which doesn’t have a nuclear membrane outside the cell nucleus and only has the bare DNA called as the nuclear area.3, Many bacteria are shaped like long rods twisted into spirals or helices。試述革蘭氏陽(yáng)性菌和革蘭氏陰性菌肽聚糖單體的異同點(diǎn)。 Class224。 ② Having no chloroplast and photosynthesis。 (3) Asycota （子囊菌亞門，高等真菌） 病毒可在短時(shí)間內(nèi)能連續(xù)完成吸附、侵入、增殖（復(fù)制與生物合成）、成熟（裝配）和裂解（釋放）5個(gè)階段而實(shí)現(xiàn)其繁殖。Burst phase：During this period, the number of virion increases rapidly with lysis of host cell③穩(wěn)定期溶液中噬菌體總數(shù)達(dá)到最高點(diǎn)后的時(shí)期。(2) and those that count viable cells only. 連續(xù)培養(yǎng): 在微生物進(jìn)入對(duì)數(shù)期時(shí)，一方面以一定速度源源不斷地輸入新鮮培養(yǎng)液，另一方面緩緩地以同樣速度移去培養(yǎng)物（包括菌體和代謝產(chǎn)物），可以延長(zhǎng)對(duì)數(shù)生長(zhǎng)期，這種培養(yǎng)方法稱為連續(xù)培養(yǎng)。Microbial ecology（微生物生態(tài)學(xué)的概念）: Microbial ecology is the study of microbial relationships with other organisms and also with their nonliving environments.Microbial ecology is the study of the behavior and activities of microorganisms in their natural environments. （二選一） The characteristics of microbial ecosystem（微生物生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的特點(diǎn)）：（microenvironments）（stability）（adaptability）微生物在生態(tài)系統(tǒng)作用：（見(jiàn)PPT）Biogeochemical cycling （生物地球化學(xué)循環(huán)）：Microorganisms, in the course of their growth and metabolism, interact with each other in the cycling of nutrients, including carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and manganese. This nutrient cycling, called biogeochemical cycling.氮素循環(huán)：四個(gè)概念（固氮作用，氨化作用，硝化作用，反硝化作用），五個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)（固氮作用，氨化作用，同化作用，硝化作用和反硝化作用），一張圖。拮抗包括：特異性和非特異性拮抗作用。（二）根圈微生物對(duì)植物生長(zhǎng)的不利影響A, 引起作物病害；B, 某些有害微生物雖無(wú)致病性，但其產(chǎn)生的有毒物質(zhì)能抑制種子的發(fā)芽、幼苗的生長(zhǎng)和根系的發(fā)育；C, 競(jìng)爭(zhēng)有限養(yǎng)分。 （2）免疫穩(wěn)定（immunologic homeostasis)。包括骨髓（bone marrow)，胸腺（thymus）和法氏囊（bursa of Fabricius)。The process of immune response includes: Inductive stage (感應(yīng)階段）； Proliferative and differentiation stage（增殖和分化階段）； Effective stage（效應(yīng)階段）.Antigen（抗原）：Substances, such as proteins, nucleoproteins, polysaccharides, and some glycolipids, that elicit an immune response and react with the products of that response are called antigens.Most antigens are large, plex molecules with a molecular weight generally greater than about 10,000.完全抗原（plete antigen):凡同時(shí)具有免疫原性和免疫反應(yīng)性的抗原，就稱之為完全抗原。 Ig的類別（classes)和亞類（subclasses)224。 2, Microorganism as biomedicine。論述微生物在工農(nóng)業(yè)和環(huán)境治理等方面的應(yīng)用。 4, Microorganism in wastewater treatment and bioremediation。免疫學(xué)技術(shù)有凝集反應(yīng)、沉淀反應(yīng)、補(bǔ)體結(jié)合反應(yīng)、中和反應(yīng)和標(biāo)記免疫反應(yīng)五種類型