【正文】 movement. movement Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position. rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. theory A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X”→（Spec）X(Compl). naming theory The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to。 rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response. It’s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It’s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and decontextualized. It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the nonlinguistic world of experience. It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. (形)異義Homonymy It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. It refers to two words are identical in sound. . rain/reign. It refers to two words are identical in form .. tear v./tear n. It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension. Analysis分析詞匯抽象意義 It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning ponents, called semantic features. Analysis 由British Linguist It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important mon category shared by propositions, questions, mands ect. 通過(guò)對(duì)論元argument和謂語(yǔ)predicate的分析，達(dá)到對(duì)句子意義進(jìn)行分析的許多模式中的一種。 It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde. The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. act theory It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic munication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by constitute the speech act theory. Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truthvalue.。 Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. Act A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention it’s the act performed in saying something. Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it’s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance. meaning It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. meaning It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of munication, it bees and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered. Principle It’s proposed and formulated by , a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. implicatures According to , it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s Langue和parole的區(qū)別 ⑵ linguist in1950針對(duì)Saussure’s langueamp。parole提出Competence和performance ⑶曾經(jīng)對(duì)語(yǔ)言概念下過(guò)定義的語(yǔ)言學(xué)家 Sapirlanguage is a purely human and noninstinctive method of munication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Halllanguage is the institution whereby humans municate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oralauditory arbitrary symbols. Chomskyfrom now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ⑷ Linguist Charles Hockett Charles Hockett design features resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000langu