【正文】 ue. It39。s own beliefs and motivations without falling into the trap of justifying our existing ways of seeing ourselves and the world around us.Example:abilities39。t be answered without appearing guilty.Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature the recipient of the loaded question is pelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.Example:t been proven beyond all doubt is also fallacious reasoning.Example:When the judge asked the defendant why he hadn39。t have to pay them because the sign said 39。 and so he naturally presumed that it would be fine to park there.第十三條：賭徒謬誤13. the gambler39。runs39。big run39。t influenced by what happened before.Example:Shamus pointed a drunken finger at Sean and asked him to explain how so many people could believe in leprechauns if they39。s important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding and/or access to empirical evidence. However it is, entirely possible that the opinion of a person or institution of authority is wrong。Not able to defend his position that evolution 39。t true39。t a primate).第十六條：合成謬誤16. position/division 合成謬誤You assumed that one part of something has to be applied to all, or other, parts of it。Daniel was a precocious child and had a liking for logic. He reasoned that atoms are invisible, and that he was made of atoms and therefore invisible too. Unfortunately, despite his thinky skills, he lost the game of hide and go seek.第十七條：沒(méi)有真正的蘇格蘭人17. no true scotsmanYou made what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of your argument.In this form of faulty reasoning one39。t apply to a supposedly 39。 example. This kind of postrationalization is a way of avoiding valid criticisms of one39。Angus declares that Scotsmen do not put sugar on their porridge, to which Lachlan points out that he is a Scotsman and puts sugar on his porridge. Furious, like a true Scot, Angus yells that no true Scotsman sugars his porridge.第十八條：基因謬誤18. geneticYou judged something as either good or bad on the basis of where it es from, or from whom it came.This fallacy avoids the argument by shifting focus onto something39。s origins. It39。s argument look bad, without actually presenting a case for why the argument itself lacks merit.Example:clock news of corruption and taking bribes, the senator said that we should all be very wary of the things we hear in the media, because we all know how very unreliable the media can be.第十九條：非黑即白19. blackorwhiteYou presented two alternative states as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist.Also known as the false dilemma, this insidious tactic has the appearance of forming a logical argument, but under closer scrutiny it bees evident that there are more possibilities than the either/or choice that is presented. Binary, blackorwhite thinking doesn39。Whilst rallying support for his plan to fundamentally undermine citizens39。s not very good.Example:s Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.第二十一條：訴諸自然21. appeal to natureYou argued that because something is 39。 it is therefore valid, justified, inevitable, good or ideal.Many 39。 things are also considered 39。, and this can bias our thinking。t make something good or bad. For instance murder could be seen as very natural, but that doesn39。s good or justifiable.Example:artificial39。s often much easier for people to believe someone39。abstract39。Jason said that that was all cool and everything, but his grandfather smoked, like, 30 cigarettes a day and lived until 97 so don39。false cause39。s a really good shot. Clusters naturally appear by chance, but don39。The makers of Sugarette Candy Drinks point to research showing that of the five countries where Sugarette drinks sell the most units, three of them are in the top ten healthiest countries on Earth, therefore Sugarette drinks are healthy.第二十四條：中間立場(chǎng)24. middle groundYou claimed that a promise, or middle point, between two extremes must be the truth.Much of the time the truth does indeed lie between two extreme points, but this can bias our thinking: sometimes a thing is simply untrue and a promise of it is also untrue. Half way between truth and a lie, is still a lie.Example:160