【正文】 ce and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems with a drug habit.14 . appeal to authority訴諸權(quán)威You said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.It39。s important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding and/or access to empirical evidence. However it is, entirely possible that the opinion of a person or institution of authority is wrong。 therefore the authority that such a person or institution holds does not have any intrinsic bearing upon whether their claims are true or not.Example:Not able to defend his position that evolution 39。isn39。t true39。 Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions evolution (and presumably isn39。t a primate).15 竊取論點(diǎn). begging the questionYou presented a circular argument in which the conclusion was included in the premise.This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because it39。s not very good.Example:The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo39。s Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.第二部分 以下完整版留著資料用。第一條：稻草人1. strawman/straw manYou misrepresented someone39。s argument to make it easier to attack.By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just pletely fabricating someone39。s argument, it39。s much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty serves to undermine honest rational debate.Example:After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.第二條：錯(cuò)誤歸因2. false causeYou presumed that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for causation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes correlation is coincidental, or it may be attributable to a mon cause.Example:Pointing to a fancy chart, Roger shows how temperatures have been rising over the past few centuries, whilst at the same time the numbers of pirates have been decreasing。 thus pirates cool the world and global warming is a hoax.第三條：訴諸感情3. appeal to emotionYou attempted to manipulate an emotional response in place of a valid or pelling argument.Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, pride, and more. It39。s important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or have an emotional aspect, but the problem and fallacy occurs when emotion is used instead of a logical argument, or to obscure the fact that no pelling rational reason exists for one39。s position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is affected by emotion, and so appeals to emotion are a very mon and effective argument tactic, but they39。re ultimately flawed, dishonest, and tend to make one39。s opponents justifiably emotional.Example:Luke didn39。t want to eat his sheep39。s brains with chopped liver and brussel sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world country who weren39。t fortunate enough to have any food at all.第四條：謬誤謬誤4. the fallacy fallacyYou presumed that because a claim has been poorly argued, or a fallacy has been made, that the claim itself must be wrong.It is entirely possible to make a claim that is false yet argue with logical coherency for that claim, just as is possible to make a claim that is true and justify it with various fallacies and poor arguments.Example:Recognising that Amanda had mitted a fallacy in arguing that we should eat healthy food because a nutritionist said it was popular, Alyse said we should therefore eat bacon double cheeseburgers every day.第五條：滑坡謬誤5. slippery slopeYou said that if we allow A to happen, then Z will eventually happen too, therefore A should not happen.The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to extreme hypotheticals. Because n