【正文】 of representing speech in another medium. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech because it is the natural, or primary, medium in which language is manifest, and written language derives from the transference of speech to a secondary, visual medium.Ex2. There is no absolute standard of correctness because linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Different groups of people may use different varieties of language. The correctness in language use should not be prescribed grammatically. The Scope of Linguistics Use of Linguistics, Omitted Recent Developments OmittedChapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology Production of sounds Scope of Phonetics, Omitted Articulation of Sounds, pg51.Ex2. When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner, sounds are classified into plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, trills and taps. When examined from view of place of articulation, sounds are divided into groups like bilabials, dentals, postalveolar, retroflex, uvular, glottal, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and pharyngeal sounds. Characteristics of English Speech SoundsOmitted The Transcription of Sounds, pg56.Ex1. Narrow transcription captures the exact articulatory details of each sound. It records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording. On the contrary, broad transcription is a less subtle transcription. It omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation and is perfectly suitable for many users.2. 2 Phonemes Definition of Phonemes, pg58Ex1. Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units. In other words, a phoneme is a block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts。 it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.Ex3. [p] and [b] are different phonemes because they represent distinctive sounds. In addition, if we substitute one sound for the other, it results in a change of meaning. Minimal Pairs, pg59Ex1. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, deed and seed are minimal pairs, but deed and dog are not because the vowel and final consonant in these two sounds are different. Sound Patterns Sequential Constraints, pg63Ex2. These words are not permissible in English. All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes. *tpray, *btry, *tgharg do not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes. When three consonants occur, the first must be [s]. Complementary Distribution, pg 65Ex1. When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in plementary distribution. That is to say, plementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), . in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s).Ex2. These two sounds are not pronounced in the same way, because of they are in plementary distribution. Chapter 3. Morphology and Lexicon Words and Word Classes, pg75 WordEx2. The relation between the sound or sound bination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary. There is no logical relationship between the sound or the bination of sounds which stands for an entity (including a thing, a happening or an idea) and the entity itself. On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages. On the other hand, the same meaning can be represented by different sound of bination of sounds. Ex3. Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called “denotative”, “l(fā)ogical” or “cognitive” meaning), a word normally has various kinds of meanings, including its connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As for its various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context, the context of situation and the context of culture. Word Classes, pg81Ex3. Openclass words refer to those classes of words to which we can add new words. In English, nouns, notional verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category. Such words normally convey certain semantic contents and thus are also called “content words”. Closedclass words refer to those classes to which new words can hardly be added. In English, closedclass words include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, relatives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the linking verb “to be”. Their roles in the linguistic system are partly or wholly grammatical and thus are also called “grammatical words”. Morpheme What Is A Morpheme?, pg82Ex1. 1) un + bear + able 2) watch + ful 3) person+ ify (i) + cation4) un + exception + al + ly 5) un +educate +(e)d 6) inspir(e) + ing 7) soft + heart + ed 8) horse + man + shipEx2. 1) 3: geo + graph + y 2) 4: inter +nation + al + ly 3) 2: forget + (t)en 4) 1: Washington 5) 2: inform + ation 6) 4: industry (i) + al +iz(e) + ation 7) 3: pre + dominat(e) + ant 8) 2: pre + consciousEx3. The plural s has many morphologicallyconditioned allomorphs. For example, (1) –(e)s, as in “cats”, “matches”。 (3) –e: as in “men”, “women”。 and (5) zero, as in “sheep”, “deer”. Types of MorphemesOmitted Inflection and WordFormation Inflection Omitted Wordformation Omitted Lexicon Lexeme, pg93Ex3. Collocation refers to the habitual cooccurrence of individual lexical items. In a