【正文】 Hyponymy。 Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves增and減set on the Adjacency condition. with Englishtype languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the增 value, while for Frenchtype language, the parameter is set to減value. 三、問(wèn)答題 the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences. ⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind ⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.Chapter 5 Semantics 一、定義 naming theory The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to。 an generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence. 循環(huán)性體現(xiàn)了語(yǔ)言中的句子能有更多的成分，使說(shuō)話(huà)者能在同一句子中重復(fù)一些句法成分。 are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and By manner of articulation do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why? 語(yǔ)音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的研究中心有何不同?語(yǔ)音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家哪一個(gè)更關(guān)心清晰音的區(qū)別?為什么? Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences. Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning. ’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme? Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phonemea collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophonesactual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?為什么區(qū)分最小對(duì)立組在一種語(yǔ)言中非常重要? Minimal pair—two sound binations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個(gè)語(yǔ)音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個(gè)語(yǔ)音組合. Minimal set—a group of sound binations with the above feature. 一組具有上述特征的語(yǔ)音組合. By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通過(guò)分析一種語(yǔ)言的最小對(duì)立對(duì)或最小對(duì)立組,音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位. with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the oneletter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 有序規(guī)則Sequential rules Rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language. 同化規(guī)則Assimilation rules The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略規(guī)則Deletion rule It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.Chapter Three Morphology一、定義 The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be bined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes. A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‘be‘ and ‘en(m)‘ Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. using the morphological rules, we must guard against Overgeneralization. 二、知識(shí)點(diǎn) Inflectional morphology Derivational morphology Free morphemes Morphemes Root Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes Affixes Prefix Derivational affixes words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix features: ⑴orthographically, a pound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. ⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a pound is determined by the last element. ⑶semantically, the meaning of a pound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its ponent Chapter Four Syntax一、定義 A structurally independent unit that usually prises a number of words to form a plete sta