【導讀】畫家將已完成的作品掛在墻上，每個人都可以觀賞到。演奏者將其演奏出來，其他人才能得以欣賞。因為作曲家是如此完。肩上的擔子可謂不輕。的訓練，就象一名醫(yī)科的學生要成為一名醫(yī)生一樣。歌手們每天都練習吊嗓子，因為如果不能有效地控。帶將不能滿足演唱的要求。弦樂器的演奏者練習的則是在左手的。右手前后拉動琴弓--兩個截然不同的動作。歌手和樂器演奏者必須。使所有的音符完全相同協調。鋼琴家們則不用操這份心，因為每。給鋼琴調音是調音師的職責。但調音師們也有他們的難處：他。音錘發(fā)出的聲音象是打擊樂器，而且每個交疊的音都必須要清晰。必須致力于以熱忱而又客觀的權威去控制這些音符。方面的知識和悟性結合起來，單純的技巧沒有任何用處。懷喜悅地演出寫于任何時代的作品。

　　

【正文】 ms, on the other hand, are familiar words and idioms that are understood by almost all speakers of a language and used in informal speech or writing, but not considered appropriate for more formal situations. Almost all idiomatic expressions are colloquial language. Slang, however, refers to words and expressions understood by a large number of speakers but not accepted as good, formal usage by the majority. Colloquial expressions and even slang may be found in standard dictionaries but will be so identified. Both colloquial usage and slang are more mon in speech than in writing. Colloquial speech often passes into standard speech. Some slang also passes into standard speech, but other slang expressions enjoy momentary popularity followed by obscurity. In some cases, the majority never accepts certain slang phrases but nevertheless retains them in their collective memories. Every generation seems to require its own set of words to describe familiar objects and events. It has been pointed out by a number of linguists that three cultural conditions are necessary for the creation of a large body of slang expressions. First, the introduction and acceptance of new objects and situations in the society。 second, a diverse population with a large number of subgroups。 third, association among the subgroups and the majority population. Finally, it is worth noting that the terms standard colloquial and slang exist only as abstract labels for scholars who study language. Only a tiny number of the speakers of any language will be aware that they are using colloquial or slang expressions. Most speakers of English will, during appropriate situations, select and use all three types of expressions. 語言的類型 標準用法包括那些為使用這種語言的大多數人在任何場合下理解、使用和 接受的詞和短語，而不論該場合是否正式。 這些詞和短語的意義已很確定并被列入了標準 詞典中。 相反，俗語是指那些幾乎所有講這種語言的人都理解并在非正式的口頭或書面中 使用，卻不適用于更正規(guī)的一些場合的詞和短語。 幾乎所有的習慣用語都屬于俗語，而俚 語指的是為很多講這種語言的人理解但大多數人不把它們列入好的、正式用法之內的詞和短 語；俗語甚至俚語都可能在標準字典中查到，但是字典中會標明它們的性質。 俗語和俚語 詞匯的 應用都是口頭較多、筆頭較少。俗語用法經常地被接受為標準用法。 一些俚語也變 成了標準用法，但另外一些俚語只經歷了短暫的流行，而后就被棄之不用了。 有時候，多 數人從來不接受某些俚語，但是他們把這些俚語保存到集中記憶中。 每一代人似乎都需要 獨有的一套詞匯來描述熟知的物體和事件。 很多語言學家指出，大量俚語的形成需要三個 文化條件：第一，對社會中新事物的引入和接受；第二，一個由大量子群構成的多樣化人口； 第三，各子群與多數人口之間的聯系。最后需要提到的是， 標準語、 俗語 和 俚語 這些 術 語只是對研究語言的專家才有用的抽象標簽。 不論何種語言，只會有很小一部分使用者 能夠意識到他們是在使用俗語或俚語。 講英語的多數人能夠在適當的場合中選擇使用所有 這三種語言類型。 11 Archaeology Archaeology is a source of history, not just a humble auxiliary discipline. Archaeological data are historical documents in their own right, not mere illustrations to written texts. Just as much as any other historian, an archaeologist studies and tries to reconstitute the process that has created the human world in which we live and us ourselves in so far as we are each creatures of our age and social environment. Archaeological data are all changes in the material world resulting from human action or, more succinctly, the fossilized results of human behavior. The sum total of these constitutes what may be called the archaeological record. This record exhibits certain peculiarities and deficiencies the consequences of which produce a rather superficial contrast between archaeological history and the more familiar kind based upon written records. Not all human behavior fossilizes. The words I utter and you hear as vibrations in the air are certainly human changes in the material world and may be of great historical significance. Yet they leave no sort of trace in the archaeological records unless they are captured by a dictaphone or written down by a clerk. The movement of troops on the battlefield may change the course of history, but this is equally ephemeral from the archaeologist39。s standpoint. What is perhaps worse, most anic materials are perishable. Everything made of wood, hide, wool, linen, grass, hair, and similar materials will decay and vanish in dust in a few years or centuries, save under very exceptional conditions. In a relatively brief period the archaeological record is reduced to mere scraps of stone, bone, glass, metal, and earthenware. Still modern archaeology, by applying appropriate techniques and parative methods, aided by a few lucky finds from peatbogs, deserts, and frozen soils, is able to fill up a good deal of the gap. 考古學 考古學是歷史學的一個來源，而不是地位卑微的輔助學科。 考古學資料本身也是一種 歷史文獻，而不僅僅是文字資料的例證。 正象任何一位歷史學家那樣，考古學家研究調查 并盡力去重構一個過程。 這個過程創(chuàng)造了我們生活的人類世界，也創(chuàng)造了我們自身，因為 我們都是我們所處的時代和社會環(huán)境的產物。 考古學的資料就是人類行為所造成的物質變 化。 更簡潔地說，是石化了的人類行為。 這些變化的總和構成了我們所說的考古學記錄。 這些記錄自有其獨特和不足之處，因而導致人們對考古歷史和更熟悉的文字記載歷史進行 相 當膚淺的對比。并不是所有的人類行為都留下化石。 我說的話，你通過空氣振動聽見，這 當然是人類造成的物質變化，也可能有重大的歷史意義，但這些話在考古學中未留下絲毫痕 跡，除非有人用錄音機錄下來或文書把這些話寫了下來。 戰(zhàn)場上軍隊的行動可能 改變歷史 的進程 ，但從考古學的觀點來看，這同樣是難以捕捉的；可能更糟的是，多數有機物質會 腐爛。 任何由木頭、生皮、絨線、亞麻、草、毛發(fā)以及相似物質做成的東西除非在一些非 常特殊的條件下，幾年或幾個世紀以后，會在塵土中腐爛并消失。 在短時期內，能留下考 古記錄的東西也都會退化為石頭、骨頭、玻璃、金屬和陶器的碎片。 然而，現代考古學通 過運用適當的技術和比較的方法，在從泥炭、沙漠和凍土中所獲得的一些幸運發(fā)現的輔助下， 能夠填充這個空缺的很大部分。 12 Museums From Boston to Los Angeles, from New York City to Chicago to Dallas, museums are either planning, building, or wrapping up wholesale expansion programs. These programs already have radically altered facades and floor plans or are expected to do so in the nottoodistant future. In New York City alone, six major institutions have spread up and out into the air space and neighborhoods around them or are preparing to do so. The reasons for this confluence of activity are plex, but one factor is a consideration everywhere space. With collections expanding, with the needs and functions of museums changing, empty space has bee a very precious modity.