【文章內(nèi)容簡(jiǎn)介】 n relying on either anecdote or naturalistic observation, to study problem solving and other behavioral processes of cats, dogs, and chicks. His analysis focused on whether the similarities between humans and other animals were homologous, that is, functionally equivalent, or whether they were merely analogous in form. Concluding the latter, he used the law of effect, not stated as such until long after the monograph was published, to account for the behavioral processes he studied, without appeal to reason or other cognitive mechanisms. His bination of applying experimental methods to the study of animal behavior and his insistence on objectivity in behavioral description were prescient of such later behaviorists as Watson and Skinner.Progressivism進(jìn)步主義是20世紀(jì)上半期盛行于美國(guó)的一種教育哲學(xué)思潮，對(duì)當(dāng)時(shí)的美國(guó)學(xué)校教育產(chǎn)生相當(dāng)大的影響。起源自反對(duì)傳統(tǒng)教育的形式主義。20世紀(jì)初杜威（J. Dewey, 18591952）將其實(shí)用主義（Pragmatism）哲學(xué)運(yùn)用于教育領(lǐng)域，其實(shí)驗(yàn)和理論更壯大了進(jìn)步主義的聲勢(shì)，甚至遠(yuǎn)播至中國(guó)。1910至1920年代，美國(guó)建立了許多新學(xué)校，許多舊學(xué)校也加入進(jìn)步主義的陣營(yíng)。都市地區(qū)的學(xué)校更廣泛地采用活動(dòng)課程、核心課程與設(shè)計(jì)教學(xué)法。這些學(xué)校的特色是兒童本位、較寬容的訓(xùn)導(dǎo)、男女合校、課程實(shí)驗(yàn)，不重視學(xué)業(yè)與考試，鼓勵(lì)藝術(shù)與手工學(xué)習(xí)。1919年進(jìn)步教育學(xué)會(huì)成立，1930年代達(dá)到全盛時(shí)期。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)后，人們逐漸意識(shí)到進(jìn)步主義的教育并不能提高知識(shí)水平，進(jìn)步主義教育運(yùn)動(dòng)遂漸次衰退，1955年進(jìn)步教育協(xié)會(huì)解散，宣告了這個(gè)時(shí)代的結(jié)束；但是進(jìn)步主義的思想至今對(duì)美國(guó)教育仍有影響。杜威曾對(duì)流行半個(gè)世紀(jì)的進(jìn)步主義教育運(yùn)動(dòng)的成敗有所評(píng)價(jià)，也認(rèn)為該思潮最大的成就是改變了課堂生活的氣氛，對(duì)兒童的需要有了更多的認(rèn)識(shí)，師生關(guān)系更為民主化，但是進(jìn)步主義教育的弱點(diǎn)，則在知識(shí)性教材的選擇與組織方面，有待大力改善（張芬芬，2000：249250）。Homework1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials.2. Try to understand Selected Translation for Reference3. Preview Chapter 3 amp。 4 Lecture Week 3Objectives and Tasks1. Chapter Three Instructional Technology: Present and Future2. Part of Chapter Four Learning TheoriesChapter Three Instructional Technology: Present and FutureKey Point：The Diverse Status of Instructional TechnologyDifficult Point：The Professionalizing of the Field1. Positive trends (p. 23)1) Instructional technologists more eclectic(choosing from a wide rang) in the philosophies (objectivism, behaviorism, cognitivism認(rèn)知論, constructivism, postmodernism), not adhering to a single ideology, drawing from what is best for the given situation, learner and content2) Distance education growing in acceptance, use and quality2. Negative trends (pp. 2324)1) Evaluation valued but infrequently used.2) Instructional development practiced more in nonschool settings than in schools3. Diverse status (pp. 2425)Question: Do you think instructional technology can be qualified as discipline(學(xué)科)?1) Diversity of program and research identities of the field2) Unrealistic striving for a unifying instructional technology agenda3) Alessi’s suggestion that the research and development of instructional technology be embedded into education4. Professionalizing of the field(p. 25)Although instructional or educational technology plays a very important role in improving learning and makes great contributions to learning, it is not qualified as an independent discipline because people working in this field are mostly craftsmen, not professionals. It does not meet professional standards.5. Training of professionals (mentors) (pp. 2526)6. Choosing our future (p. 26)Instructional technology’s challenge in ing years will be in maintaining strong, broadbased grounding for professional practice, with a focus on a selected few cohering principles and purposes to keep the field together.Chapter Four Learning TheoriesKey Point：Cognitive InformationProcessing TheoryDifficult Point：Constructivism1. Necessity of the theories of learning (pp. 3536)1) The intuitive definition of learning: People can do something that they could no do before or the know something that they did not know before.2) The psychological definition of learning: a persisting change in human performance or performance potential.3) A solid foundation in various learning theories: ISD professionals must be familiar with the theory and research on learning and must be able to apply them to actual practice.4) Various theoriesa) Piaget’s childhood educationb) Ausubel and Rothkopf’s textual materialsc) Bandura’s social learning theoryd) Bruner’s rich philosophical insight into discovery learning and problem solvinge) Keller’s work on motivationf) Knowles’ emphasis on factors that facilitate adult learningg) Cognitive science of Klatzky, Anderson, Gagne, Wildman and Burton, of how humans perceive, process, store, and retrieve information, and their schema theory, elaboration, metacognition, automaticity, expert/novice studies, and transfer2. Behaviorism (pp. 3637)1) John B. Watson (18781958), the first behaviorist (See note)2) Edward L. Thorndike (18741949)3) James Hartley4) The stimulusresponse (SR) modela) Three underlying/basic key assumptionsl Observable behavior as the focus of study and learning manifested by a change in behaviorl Behavior shaped by the environment and learning determined by the elements in the environment, not by the individual learnerl The principles of contiguity and reinforcement central in explaining the learning processb) Four key principles in terms of learningl Activityl Repetition, generalization and discrimination (practice)l Reinforcementl Clear objectivesReferenceJohn (18781958) Watsonian behaviorism 華生（1878—1958），美國(guó)心理學(xué)家，行為主義心理學(xué)的創(chuàng)始人。他認(rèn)為心理學(xué)研究的對(duì)象不是意識(shí)而是行為，心理學(xué)的研究方法必須拋棄”內(nèi)省法”，而代之以自然科學(xué)常用的實(shí)驗(yàn)法和觀(guān)察法。華生在使心理學(xué)客觀(guān)化方面發(fā)揮了巨大的作用。1915年當(dāng)選為美國(guó)心理學(xué)會(huì)主席。Educated at Furman University and the University of Chicago. Was professor of psychology and director of the Psychological Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University from 1908 to 1920. Founder of behaviorist school of psychology. Concluded that heredity is a minor factor in human being’s actions.Taught at Johns Hopkins University from 1908 – 1920.Major works: Animal Education (1903) Behavior (1914) Behaviorism (1925。 revised ed., 1936) Psychological Care of Infant and Child (1928) Homework1. Suggested Activities and Extended Materials in these two chapters。 2. Preview Chapters 53. Translation (P25 Section D The Training of the Professionals)Lect