【文章內(nèi)容簡(jiǎn)介】 the bounds of the feudal law of the land. 《大憲章》是約翰國(guó)王1215年在封建貴族壓力下簽定的?！洞髴椪隆房偣?3條，其中最重要的內(nèi)容是：(1) 未經(jīng)大議會(huì)同意，不得征稅；(2) 只有根據(jù)國(guó)家有關(guān)法律才能逮捕、監(jiān)禁自由人以及剝奪他們的財(cái)產(chǎn)；(3)教會(huì)應(yīng)享受其所有權(quán)利且有選舉自由；（4） 倫敦和其它城鎮(zhèn)應(yīng)保留其古時(shí)的權(quán)力和特權(quán)；(5) 全國(guó)要使用統(tǒng)一的重量和長(zhǎng)度度量衡。盡管人們普遍認(rèn)為《大憲章》為英國(guó)的自由奠定了基礎(chǔ)，但該憲章只是規(guī)定國(guó)王和貴族之間封建關(guān)系和法律關(guān)系的文件，保證了教會(huì)的自由，限制了國(guó)王權(quán)利。《大憲章》的精神是限制國(guó)王權(quán)力，使其在英國(guó)封建法律允許的范圍內(nèi)活動(dòng)。 origins of the English Parliament 英國(guó)議會(huì)的起源 英語國(guó)家概況精講系列（六） IV．The Hundred Years39。 War and its consequences. 百年戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)及其結(jié)果 The Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France, while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England39。s desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes. The English39。s being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity, while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory. 百年戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)指1337年到1453年英法之間一場(chǎng)斷斷續(xù)續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的起因既有領(lǐng)土因素又有經(jīng)濟(jì)因素。領(lǐng)土起因尤其是與英國(guó)國(guó)王擁有法國(guó)的阿基坦大片公爵領(lǐng)地有密切關(guān)系，隨著法國(guó)國(guó)王勢(shì)力日增，他們渴望占領(lǐng)這片在他們領(lǐng)土內(nèi)的土地。經(jīng)濟(jì)原因則與弗蘭德斯有關(guān)。弗蘭德斯地區(qū)生產(chǎn)棉布的城鎮(zhèn)是英國(guó)羊毛的主要進(jìn)口商，但這些城鎮(zhèn)在政治上卻效忠法國(guó)國(guó)王。其他原因還有英國(guó)試圖阻止法國(guó)幫助蘇格蘭人，以及不斷覺醒的民族意識(shí)。 戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的結(jié)果：把英國(guó)人趕出法國(guó)對(duì)兩個(gè)國(guó)家都是幸事：若國(guó)車人繼續(xù)留在法國(guó)，那么法國(guó)人在領(lǐng)土和財(cái)富上所占的優(yōu)勢(shì)必然會(huì)阻礙分離的英國(guó)民族的發(fā)展；而法國(guó)民族被外國(guó)勢(shì)力占領(lǐng)了眾多的領(lǐng)土，發(fā)展更是長(zhǎng)期受阻。 V. The Black Death 黑死病 The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England39。s population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century. Chapter 4 第四章 Transition to the Modern Age (14551688) 向現(xiàn)代英國(guó)的過渡 I. Transition to the Modern Age (14551485) 向現(xiàn)代英國(guó)的過渡(1455年1485年) The Wars of Rose 玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng) The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened. 玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)是指，從1455年到1485年，以紅玫瑰為象征的蘭開斯特大家族和以白玫瑰為象征的約克家族之間戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的普遍接受的名稱。1485年，蘭開斯特家族的后代亨利都鐸取得了博斯沃恩戰(zhàn)役的勝利，建立了都鐸王朝。這些戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)使英國(guó)的封建主義受到致命打擊，貴族階層受到了削弱。 II. The English Reformation 英國(guó)的宗教改革 Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had e。 the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented。 and Henry needed money. 最重要的是，亨利八世負(fù)責(zé)進(jìn)行教會(huì)的宗教改革。改革原因有三個(gè)主要方面：改革教會(huì)的渴望已有多年，現(xiàn)在又受馬丁路德成功的鼓舞，許多人認(rèn)為時(shí)機(jī)已到；人們痛恨教職人員的威望和財(cái)富；亨利需要錢。 The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henry’s reforms was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England. 改革以爭(zhēng)取離婚而開始，以脫離教皇而告終。亨利八世欲與阿拉貢的凱瑟琳離婚，但是教皇拒絕了。亨利改革的目的是擺脫英國(guó)教會(huì)與教皇的聯(lián)系，成立獨(dú)立的英格蘭教會(huì)。1529年至1534年間逐漸地與羅馬脫離了關(guān)系。他解散了所有英國(guó)的修道院和修女院，因?yàn)楹笳邔?duì)教皇比對(duì)英國(guó)國(guó)王更忠誠(chéng)。1534年的《繼位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他獲“英格蘭教會(huì)最高首腦”之稱號(hào)。 Henry VIII’s reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry’s position。 Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism. 改革的三大影響：亨利的改革強(qiáng)調(diào)了君主權(quán)力，自然加強(qiáng)了亨利的地位；議會(huì)以往從未做過如此漫長(zhǎng)而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加強(qiáng)；他對(duì)教皇權(quán)力的打擊鼓舞許多人批評(píng)指責(zé)天主教會(huì)，并希望從天主教轉(zhuǎn)向新教。 英語國(guó)家概況精講系列（八） III. Elizabeth I (15581603) 伊莉莎白一世（1558年1603年） Elizabeth39。s religious reform and her foreign policy 伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策 Elizabeth39。s religious reform was a promise of views. She broke Mary39。s ties with Rome and restored her father39。s independent Church of England, . keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain. 伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各種觀點(diǎn)的妥協(xié)。她中斷瑪麗與羅馬的關(guān)系，恢復(fù)父王獨(dú)立的英格蘭教會(huì)，也就是說保持天主教教條及習(xí)俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被極端的新教徒（即清教徒）所接受，也不為虔誠(chéng)的天主教徒所接受。 近30年的時(shí)間，伊莉莎白成功地令兩大天主教強(qiáng)國(guó)法國(guó)和西班牙互相斗殺，從而免于英國(guó)卷入任何主要的歐洲國(guó)的沖突。通過她從未具體化的聯(lián)姻，伊莉莎白設(shè)法與法國(guó)維持友好關(guān)系，因此英國(guó)能面對(duì)來自西班牙的危險(xiǎn)。 VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death. The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen