【文章內(nèi)容簡介】 o make appropriate responses 68 How We Explain Other?s Behavior ? Attributions are inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others? behavior, and their own behavior ? Attribution Theory ? Dispositional vs. situational attributions (Heider, 1958) ? Correspondent inference (Jones amp。 Davis, 1965) ? Covariation principle (Kelly, 1967) 69 Correspondent Inference Theory ? Theory of how we use others? behavior as a basis for inferring their stable dispositions ? We infer others? traits from observing their behavior, especially when behavior: ? Nonmon effectsElements of the pattern of action that are not shared with alterative patterns of action ? Has three choices: ? 浙江大學 分數(shù)要求高；學科好；離家遠 ? 復旦大學 分數(shù)要求高；學科好；離家遠 ? 南京大學 分數(shù)要求高；學科好；離家近 ? 選南京大學 ? 理由：離家近 ? Correspondent inference: 戀家的小孩 ? Social desirabilityUndesirable behavior leads to correspondent interference more than desirable behavior ? Freedom of choicethe greater the choice freedom, the greater the correspondent inference 70 Kelley’s Covariation Principle ? A given effect is often the results of an interaction among a number of causes ? According to the covariation principle, people look for covariation in three areas: ? Stimulus object ? Persons ? Circumstance 71 Kelley’s Covariation Principle We determine the cause of an actor?s behavior by assessing the covariation of the following 3 criteria… Consensus(一致性 ) the extent that others behave in the same way Consistency(一貫性 ) the extent that the person always behaves this way Distinctiveness(特異性 ) the extent that the person acts differently in other situations 72 Kelley?s Covariation Model (Cont?d) 73 Why Was the Student Late? ? Internal attribution (., the student is lazy) is made if: ? High Consistency: in the past, she has e in late ? Low Consensus: no one else came in late ? Low Distinctiveness: she is late to other classes ? External attribution (., more time was needed between her classes) is made if: ? High Consistency: in the past, she has e in late ? High Consensus: other students came in late ? High Distinctiveness: she is only late to this class 74 Do we really go to this much effort? ? (Lupfer, et al., 1990) ? Often, No. We often jump to conclusions about causes based on past experience ? YES, when ? Events are unexpected ? Events or outes are unpleasant 75 Handling Multiple Causes ? When multiple causes are present the following may occur: ? Discounting Principle tendency to attach less importance to a potential cause of behavior if other potential causes are also present ? Augmenting Principle tendency to attach greater weight to a potential cause if the behavior occurs despite the presence of other inhibitory factors 76 Errors in attribution ? Fundamental attribution error ? Tendency to overestimate role of dispositional/internal/personal factors while ignoring external causes ? Actorobserver effect ? Tendency to attribute own behavior to external causes, but others to internal ? Selfserving bias ? Tendency to take credit for success and blame failures on the situation 77 Fundamental attribution error 78 Fundamental attribution error 79 Why does fundamental attribution error occur? ? Differences in “figureground” perceptual salience ? Actors Situation ? Observers the Actor ? Differences in availability of information ? History of actor ? Cultural context ? Motivation (effort) of the observer ? Situational constraints (., time) ? We mit less FAE ? When we know the actor better ? As time going by 80 Fundamental attribution error: Motivational factors ? Attributions tend to be made in the following 2 step sequence ? Focusing on the person (making an internal attribution) ? Taking the situation into account (allowing for external attributions) ? The second step is more effortful, so we often skip it 81 82 Spontaneous trait inferences ? ., Todorov amp。 Uleman, 2022. ? 被試： 27個大學生 ? 實驗材料： 60 pairs of facebehavioral sentence ? 設計： 3（ trait:presented vs. implied vs. control） * 2 （ pacing: fastpace vs. selfpace） ? 將實驗任務描述成記憶任務 ? 第一部分：看人物面部照片和信息 (2s or selfpace。 20 trials: trait+behavior, 40 trials: only behavior) ? 第二部分：測試記憶 : faceword (20 trials: contained traits。 20 trials: implied traits。 20: traits implied by the behavior paired with other faces) 83 Spontaneous trait inferences ? ., Todorov amp。 Uleman, 2022.(Cont?d) 84 Fundamental attribution error: Motivational factors ? Defensive attribution ? The tendency to blame victims for their misfortune ? “Just world beliefs” ? The belief that bad things happen to bad people, good things happen to good people 85 Fundamental attribution error: Cultural differences From . Miller (1984) Culture and the Development of Everyday Social Explanation, Journal of Perso