【正文】 ss by themselves. Secondary units (sounds) 底層結(jié)構(gòu)The sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (morphemes, words) , which are found at the higher level of the system. Primary units (meaning)上層結(jié)構(gòu)Productivity/creativity:能產(chǎn)性、創(chuàng)造性 It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Partially originating from its duality。 and in another sense, language has the potential to create endless sentences.Unique to human language.Productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rulebound creativity” (by N. Chomsky).Displacement: 不受時空限制性 It refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moments of munication. (Hu) It gives human beings the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Cultural transmission: 文化傳遞性 While we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system is not genetically transmitted, but have to be taught and learned.Interchangeability：互換性 Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand messages. It is turntaking that makes social munication possible and acceptable.Functions of LanguageDescriptive function, or cognitive / referential / propositional function is assumed to be the main function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.Expressive function, or emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.Social function, or interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. Speech Elements and Function Russianborn structural linguist Roman Jakoson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific function.addresseremotive 感情功能 addresseeconative 意動功能 contextreferential 指稱功能message poetic 詩意性功能 contact phatic munion 應(yīng)酬功能 code metalinguistic 元語功能addresseremotive 感情功能 The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of munication. . I hate what they are planning for me.addresseeconative 意動功能 The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking. . Why not go and see another doctor?contextreferential 指稱功能 The addresser conveys a message or information. . As far as I know, the earth’s resources are being astonishingly wasted.messagepoetic 詩意性功能 The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. . poetrycontact phatic munion 應(yīng)酬功能 The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. . Good morning. // 吃飯了嗎？God bless you. Nice day. code metalinguistic 元語功能 The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. . Let me tell you what the word “water” means.Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics, 3 branches of phonetics, Classification of English consonants and vowels, Phonology, Difference between phonetics and phonology, Suprasegmental featuresPhonetics is the the study of the phonic medium of language。 it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world39。s languages. It studies how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. 3 branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics.Articulatory: how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. This branch has the longest history and is the focus of this chapter.Auditory: how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Acoustic: the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.Organs of Speech: The pharyngeal cavity the throat 咽腔 the lungs, the windpipe, the glottis, the vocal cords (vibration of which→voicing, voiceless)The oral cavity the mouth 口腔 the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate(the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth, the lipsThe nasal cavity the nose 鼻腔 Voicing: the vibration of the vocal cords when speech sounds are articulated. The sounds are voiced.Voiceless: the lack of vibration of the vocal cords when the sounds are produced. The sounds are voiceless.The first version of International Phonetic Alphabet (國際音標(biāo)) came into being in August 1888, which was revised recently in 1993, and updated in 1997. IPA’s basic principle: one letter from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad and narrow transcriptions 寬式/嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音Diacritics(附加符號): another set of symbols added to the lettersymbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Broad transcription: transcription with lettersymbols only。 Narrow transcription: transcription with lettersymbols together with the diacritics. English Sounds: They are divided into consonants and vowels, according to the obstruction whatsoever.If the air stream ing from the lungs meets with no obstruction, the sound produced is a vowel。 otherwise, it is a consonant.ConsonantsIn terms of manner of articulation: stops: [p] [b], [t] [d], [k] [g] fricatives: [f] [v] [s] [z] [∫] [З] [θ] [240。] [h] affricatives: [t∫] [dЗ] liquids: [l] [r] nasals: [m] [n] [?] glides: [w] [j] In terms of place of articularionbilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w] labiodental: [f] [v] dental: [θ] [240。] alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]palatal: [∫] [З] [t∫] [dЗ] [j] velar: [k] [g] [?] glottal: [h]Vowels: monophthongs, diphthongsMonophthongs are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth。 the ope