【正文】 he meaningful speech sound in human munication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.Part Two: Phonetics1. What is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, . how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. speakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, . how the sounds are perceived by the acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to properties2. Organs of Speech1 the pharyngeal cavitythroat.2 the oral : most flexible.3 the nasal cavitynose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, [m], [n], [η].voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.3. Orthographic representation of speech soundsbroad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.4. Classification of English Speech SoundsClassification: consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.1 Classification of English consonants:1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.Stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [], [∫] [3], [h].Affricates: [t∫],[d3]Liquids: [l], [r].Nasals: [m], [n], [η]Glides: [w], [j].semivowels2 place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w].Labiodental: [f], [v]Dental: [θ], [ ]Alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]Palatal: [∫] [3], [t∫],[d3], [j].Velar: [k], [g], [η]Glottal: [h].Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.2 Classification of English Vowels.1 the position of the tongue:front: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [230。 varied(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomskypsychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competencethe ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performancethe actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic munication.(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics the publication of Saussure’s “Course in General Linguistics” in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar: (1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn’t force languages into a Latinbased framework.Part TwoWhat is language?1. Definitionlanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication.Systemelements of language are bined according to rules.Arbitrarythere is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.Vocalthe primary medium for all language is sound.Humanlanguage is humanspecific.2. Design featuresproposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12)Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of municationhumanspecific.(1) Arbitrarinessthere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some pound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivitylanguage is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its usersusers can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.(3) Duality(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of amp。戴版語言學(xué)Chapter OneIntroductionPart oneWhat is linguistics?1. Definitionlinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general.Linguists’ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.Interest of linguists is “what is said”2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguisticsthe study of language as a wholethe core of linguisticsPhoneticsthe study of sounds used in linguistic munication.Phonologythe study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in munication.Morphologythe study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and bined to form words.Syntaxthe study of the rules for sentence formationSemanticsthe study of meaning.Pragmaticsthe study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguisticsthe study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguisticsthe study of language processing, prehending and production, as wel