【正文】 Tr opes ( for egr ounded ir r egul ar it ies of cont ent ): Ar e t her e any obvi ous vi ol at i ons of or neol ogi sm s fr om t he li ngui st i c code? For exampl e, ar e t here any neol ogism s ( such as “por t ent ous i nf ant s”) ? Ar e t her e any semanti c, syntact i c, phonol ogi cal , or gr aphol ogi cal devi ati ons? Such devi at i ons are of t en t he cl ue t o special int er pret ati ons asoci at ed wi th t r adit i onal fi gur es of speech such as m etaphor , met onymy, synecdoche, par adox, and i r ony. If such t r opes occur, what ki nd of speci al i nter pr et ati on is i nvol ved (f or exam pl e, m et aphor can be classi fi ed as per sonif yi ng, ani mali zi ng, concreti zing, synaest heti c, et c)? Cont ext and cohesi on Her e we t ake a look at featur es whi ch are gener al y f ul l y dealt wi t h i n di scourse anal ysi s. Under cohesion ways i n whi ch one part of a t ext i s li nked t o anot her ar e consi der ed。 and wor ds ar e also sym bol s. ( P. 218. Oxf or d Concise Di ct i onar y of Li t er ar y Term s. ) A symbol is a t hi ng t hat suggests m ore t han i t s lit eral meani ng. It exi sts wi del y even i n our dail y li f e. Our l anguage it self i s sym bol . The dai l y gr eet i ngs i ndi cat e t hat the passage of m uni cat i on i s open. Ri ng is a sym bol of et er nit y. The si gn of cr oss i ndicates atonem ent . The Bi g Ben sym bol izes London, t he Gr eat Wal l Chi na. Rit ual isti c act s ar e sym boli c. In chur ch weddi ng t he bri de is handed over f r om t he f ather to t he gr oom. Hol y eat i ng i s sym bol ic of m uni on, bapt i zi ng cl eansi ng and r ebi rt h. The rai si ng and l oweri ng of a nat i onal fl ag cer tai nl y suggest m eani ngs l arger than t he acts t hem sel ves. And f inal y t oast i ng and shaki ng hands on form al or i nform al occasi ons. As r het or i cal devi ce, sym bol i s dif fer ent f rom m etaphor , whi ch i s li ter al l y false but fi gur ati vel y tr ue. Unl i ke al egor y, which r epr esents abst r act t erm s li ke “l(fā)ove” or “t r ut h, ” sym bol s ar e per cepti ble obj ect s. I n li ter at ure alm ost anythi ng—par ti cul ar obj ect s, char act ers, set i ng, and act i ons—can be sym bol i c if t he aut hor wi shes t o make it so by ei ther hi nti ng or insisti ng t hat the m at er i al m eans mor e than it l it era l y does. Sym bol s are suggested t hrough special tr eat ment such as im ager y, r epeti ti on, connot ati ve l anguage, or ot her art isti c devi ces. I n F. Scott Fit zger al d’s novel The Great Gat sby, a huge pai r of bespect acl ed eyes star es acr oss a wi ldnes of ash heaps fr om a bi l boar d adver ti si ng t he ser vi ces of an ocul ist. Repeat edl y appear ing i n t he st or y, t he bespect acl ed eyes e t o m ean m or e t han sim pl y t he avail abi li t y of eye exam inati on. A char act er i n t he st or y pares it t o t he eyes of God。 i t is, rat her, a symbol the poet or t he wri t er adopt s f or t he pur pose of hi s/ her wor k, and i t is t o be under st ood onl y i n t he context of t hat wor k. It dif f er s fr om t he kind of sym bol i l ust rat ed by t he fi gure 3 because i t is concr ete and speci fi c. A poet or a wr it er uses sym bol s for t he same r eason he/ she uses sim il es, met aphors, and i mages, etc: t hey hel p t o express hi s/ her m eani ng in a way t hat wil l appeal t o t he senses and t o t he em ot ions of the r eader. Most sym bol s, i n li t er at ure and everyday li fe as wel l, posses a t r em endous condensi ng power . Thei r focusi ng on t he r elati onshi ps bet wen t he vi sibl e (audi ble) and what hey suggest can ki ndl e i t i nt o a single i mpact . Of cour se, i n li ter ar y wor ks, sym bol s, unli ke t hose i n or di nar y li fe, usual y do not “st and f or” any one m eani ng, nor f or anythi ng absol utel y def i ni te。 on t he ot her hand, t he whit e whal e i s invest ed wit h dif f er ent m eani ngs f or di f er ent cr ew m em ber s thr ough t he handli ng of mater ials i n t he novel. Sim il ar l y, i n Hem i ngway’s A Farewel t o Arm s, r ain, whi ch i s gener al l y regar ded as a sym bol of li f e (especial y i n spr i ng) , and whi ch is a m il dl y annoyi ng m et eorol ogi cal phenom enon i n the openi ng chapt er , is conver ted i nt o a symbol of deat h t hr ough t he uses t o which it i s put i n t he wor k. 3. Sym bol s i n fi cti on are inanim at e obj ect s Oft en sym bol s we m et i n fi ct ion ar e i nanim at e obj ect s. I n Wil i am Faul ker’ s “A Rose for Emi ly, ” Mi s Emi l y’ s i nvi si bl e but per cepti ble wat ch ti cki ng at he end of a gol den chai n not onl y indicates t he passage of ti me, but suggests t hat t im e passes wi t hout even bei ng not iced by t he wat ch’ s owner . The gol den chai n t o which it i s at ached car ri es suggest i ons of weal t h and aut hor it y. Ot her t hi ngs may al so f unct i on symboli cal ly. I n James Joyce’s “Araby, ” t he ver y nam e of t he bazzar, Ar aby—t he poeti c nam e f or Arabia—suggest s m agi c, romance, and The Arabi an Ni ght s 。 i n Er nest Hemi ngway’ s “A Cl ean, Wel Li ght ed Pl ace” is not mer el y a caf 233。 of tr ansit ive or i nt ransit ive verb constr uct ions) ? Ar e there any unusual order ings (i nit ial adverbi al s, f ront ing of object or plement, etc) ? Do speci al ki nds of clause constr uct ion occur (such as t hose wi th prepar ator y it or there) ? Noun phrases: Ar e they r el at ively si mple or plex? Wher e does the plexit y li e ( in pr emodi fi cat ion by adjecti ves, nouns, et c, or i n post modif icati on by preposi ti on by preposi ti onal phrases, rel at ive clauses, etc)? Ver b phrases: Ar e there any signi fi cant depart ures f rom the use of the sim pl e past t ense? For example, notice occurr ences and functions of the pr esent tense, of the pr ogr esive aspe ct, of t he per fect aspe