【正文】 ’s providence. They held extreme opinions. They regarded themselves as ―chosen people‖ of God. Those who challenged their way of life were opposing God’s will. They were zealous in defense of their own beliefs, intolerant of others. They drove out or persecuted those whose opinions seemed dangerous to them. They embraced hardships, industry and frugality. They favored a disciplined, hard, somber, ascetic, harsh life. They opposed pleasure and arts. They suspect joy and laughter as symptoms of sin. They made laws about private morality as well as public behavior. They emphasized a wrathful God and to fet His mercy. They were much concerned with authority than with democracy. 2. Puritanism: a religious and political movement that developed in England about the middle of the 16th century and later spread influence into the New England in America. Puritanism was a logical aftermath of the Renaissance, the Reformation, the establishment of the church of England, and the growth of Presbyterianism. Through these movements, one sees emerging the right of the individual to political and religious independence. Across the pages of American literature Puritanism is written large. It may almost be considered the ethical mode of American thought. As an extreme form of the Protestant sensibility, Puritanism exaggerated those protestant traitsespecially industry, frugality, hardships. They favored a disciplined, hard, somber, ascetic, harsh life. All these, according to Max Weber and other analysts of social history contributed to the rise of capitalism. 3. Enlightenment Movement: In 18th century, there was a dramatic change in the minds of Europeans, before the bourgeois revolution broke out. Inspired by the development of science, philosophers hoped to apply reason to all aspects of social and political lifegovernment, law, economics, religion and education. This period therefore, came to be called the Age of Reason or the Enlightenment. It began with some key ideas that were put forth in the 17th century by English political thinkers such as: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke. According to Locke, the purpose of government is to protect what he called the ―natural rights‖ of its citizens. All people, said Locke, are born free and equal, with a right to life, liberty and property. Another natural right he believed, was ―the pursuit of happiness‖, the individual’s private rights and choices. If a government fails to protect the rights of its citizens, the leaders of the government have ―put themselves into a state of war with the people‖. The people have the right or duty to overthrow that government and established a better one. government derives its power from the consent of the people. (foundation of modern democracy) Enlightenment philosophers held that powerful government is indispensable, as a device for progress. They strongly argued for the education of mon people, questioned religious authority. They advocated free and independent thought. Enlightenment: a philosophical and intellectual movement of the18th century, it advocated reason or rationality, the scientific method, equality and human beings’ ability to perfect themselves and their society. The movement brought about a revival of interest in the old classical works. It was also the outgrowth of a number of 17th c intellectual attainments and currents: the discoveries of Sir Issac Newton, the rationalism of Descartes and Pierre Bayle, and the empiricism of Francis Bacon and John Locke. Enlightenment philosophers made a critical examination of previously accepted institutions and beliefs from the viewpoint of reason and with a confident faith in natural laws and universal order. They agreed on faith in human rationality and existence of discoverable and universally valid principles governing human beings, nature and society. They opposed intolerance, restraint, spiritual authority, and revealed religion. England Enlighteners: Addison, Steele, Swift, Pope, Edward Gibbon, Hume Adam Smith, Jereny Bentham. American enlighteners: Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson. Enlightenment gave philosophical shape to American revolution and two basic documents of the USA: The Declaration of Independence and The Constitution. In the 18th century, the Enlightenment centered in France. (Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau) its influence was so powerful that it could be felt in the newborn British colonies in America. People opposed the old colonial order (fail to give freedom) and religious obscurantism(fail to provide education), and favored the education and freedom of thoughts. American enlightenment first severely attacked the puritan traditions which opposed pleasure and arts, enforced the uniform and rigid somber, ascetic life, and persecuted those who held different ideas. They longed to seek pleasure through one’s hard work. So at that time, books on enlightenment were widely read. The demand for education and reading greatly rose. The colonial men of letters must work hard to meet the requirement. Almost all the great writers at that time were influenced or inspired by the enlightenment campaign. Their works sparkled with its spirits. The representative was Benjamin Franklin. 4. Neoclassicism: a type of classicism which draws its name form its finding in classical literature of ancient Greek and Roman writers and in contemporary French neoclassical writings the models for its literary expressions and a group of attitudes toward life and art. It dominated English literature in the restoration age and in the 18th century. Neoclassic ideals had concrete effects on literature. The neoclassicists believed that the artistic ideals should be order, logic, restrained emotion and accuracy. They followed some fixed laws and rules. Poetry should by