【正文】 s expectations affect the oute of the experiment. The researcher expects a particular result from the experiment, and that expectation causes the researcher to act in ways that influence the behavior of the experiment participants, thereby invalidating the results of the experiment. Professor For example, I recently read about a case in which a researcher was given two groups of monkeys. And he was asked to train these monkeys to pick up a ball and put it in a box. And he was told to record how many hours he took to。 similarly, as the distance from which we view an object changes, the object will appear larger or smaller. In spite of this, even as conditions change and we see objects differently, we still recognize that they remain the same. This is what is known as perceptual constancy. If not for perceptual constancy, we might have difficulty recognizing familiar objects if we viewed them in a new and different context. Professor: Let’s take an everyday example an ordinary round plate like you’d find in a kitchen. If you hold the plate directly in front of your face and look at it, what shape do you see? A perfect circle, right? Suppose you tilt the plate to a different angle, to a horizontal position, like you are planning to put food on it. Still a perfect circle? No. The circle is now stretched out, flattened into an oval. Do you conclude the plate has actually changed shape, or that it’s a different object, not the same plate? Of course not. It looks different, but we perceive it as still being the same. Here is a different example. This classroom we are in, it’s fairly large, right? Now, from up close, from the front row, I appear to be relatively big, bigger than if you were in the law, right? But let’s say you are sitting in a front row today, but tomorrow you are sitting in the back row. From back there I’m going to look smaller, but you don’t think I’ve actually gotten smaller. You don’t think you are seeing a different professor, a guy who looks like me except he is smaller. No matter where you are, up close or far away, you understand without even thinking about it that I am the same size, the same person. TPO14 Comfort Zone Bias Psychologists have found that when people make important decisions, they often choose to stay in their fort zones。s television show is written to include characters that are ba sed on alreadypopular toys. Professor OK, so I’ve actually got a few different examples of this. You know when I was kid, a character named Action Hero was really popular with my friends and me. We would always watch the Action Hero program on television every week, and played games, pretending that we were strong and powerful as he was. Then pretty soon we began seeing this small Action Hero figures in all the stores. And well we all just had to have them. I mean we’d been watching the television show for so long that it seemed only natural to want to own the toys too. Well I finally grew up and left the Action Hero television program and toys behind. But now I have a sevenyearold daughter who watches television a lot and also likes to play with her toys. And lately her favorite toy is a cute little baby doll with a big round face and lots of curly hair named Rosa. All my daughters’ friends have Rosa dolls too. And they enjoy going to each other’s houses to play with them. Then a few weeks ago, my daughter came running up to me all excited because she had just heard there was going to be a new television program on every week with the doll Rosa as the main character. So naturally she and all her friends have begun watching the show. And it’s already very popular, as popular as the toy doll. TPO11 Outsider Art Outsider Art is a term used to describe art that is made by people who choose to live and work outside society. Then artists who produce this kind of artOutsider Artistswork in isolation from other artists and have little or no formal artistic training. Because they do not learn conventional artistic teachers or other artists, Outsider Artists must invent their own ways of doing things. As a result of the unconventional methods that Outsider Artists often use, their work can look strange and not at all like traditional art to the observer. Professor All right, so let’s consider the work of the outsider artist Henry Darger. Darger lived by himself in a tiny apartment in Chicago in the 1900s. He had no friends and spent all his spare time there alone creating hundreds of paintings and drawings. He had never formally studied and kept his work pletely private so no one ever saw it or responded to it during his lifetime. And so when you see Darger’s work, you notice how unique it is. It doesn’t remind you of anything you’ve ever seen before. It’s very much his own. For example, one piece it’s a water color painting. In this piece he illustrates a story about the adventures of seven children. But see, Darger had a really hard time drawing human figures, yet he managed to e up with his own rather unique solution for the problem. He simply cut out pictures of children from newspapers and magazines and pasted them into his own painted illustration of trees, flowers and grass. The results look... um a little strange. Darger’s picture looks more cluttered, more crowded with details than the pictures of other artists because its entire surface’s painted and there are no spaces left empty. It’s also a lot longer than the pictures of most other artists, about nine feet long. TPO12 Subliminal Perception Humans are constantly perceiving visual and auditory stimuli. Sometimes our perception of these stimuli occurs consciously: we are aware of a stimulus and know that we are perceiving it. But our perception of a stimulus can also occur without our awareness: an image might appear and disappear before our eyes too q